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THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS 
IN CHINA 


BY 


IDA BELLE LEWIS, Pu.D. 


TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION, NO. 104 


PUBLISHED BY 
Teachers College, Columbia Aniversitp 
NEW YORK CITY 
1919 


Copyright, 1919 
IDA BELLE LEWIS 


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PREFACE 


This study of The Education of Girls in China has been made 
possible only by the codperation of many friends, Chinese and 
American, in this country and in China. All have given un- 
sparingly of their time and advice, and to each one the writer 
acknowledges her indebtedness. 

Especially is gratitude due to Mr. T. H. Fu, the Minister of 
Education of China, and to Mr. T. T. Wang and Mr. U. Y. Yen 
of the Educational Mission at Washington for courteous supply 
of rare documents and generous answers to all requests for in- 
formation; to Mr. E. W. Wallace, Miss Mary Louise Hamilton, 
Miss Jennie Baird Bridenbaugh, Miss Lydia Trimble and Miss 
Elizabeth Farries for gathering questionnaires from several cen- 
ters in China; to Dr. I. T. Headland and Professor 8. C. Kiang 
for permitting the use of unpublished manuscript; to Mr. W. 
T. Tao and Mr. T. H. Cheng for much translation and many sug- 
gestions in gathering material; to Bishop W. 8. Lewis, of China, 
Dr. I. L. Kandel, and the Misses Clara and Laura Chassell for 
criticism and reading of manuscript. To Professor G. D. Strayer, 
Professor Paul Monroe, Dr. T. H. P. Sailer and Professor Willy- 
stone Goodsell, of Teachers College, the writer is indebted for 
guidance and inspiration throughout the work. 

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CONTENTS 


ENTHODUCTION ew Wiican ere a re RR ete eee BE Le OU tee HOUT Ee 1 
PART I 
I. Tat TRADITIONAL EDUCATION OF WOMEN............--ccceewees 7 
The Standards for the Education of Women Upheld in the Classics: 
Moral, Vocational, Cultural Standards...................... 7 
The Influence of These Standards on Women in History........ 14 
The Influence of the Standards on Women at the Present Time... I7 
II. THe MopEern MOVEMENT IN EDUCATION...............--0e0ce00- 18 
PULABEDOSIE: SCHOO S eesrs emart t nte t g edna fe aha a ie COGIC ag 18 
| Pay Vig afer) 9 ELE E| 1” SONNE gp aan MOS ye el UCU HOR ESD a AMR RUD ee nd eae 
CU UMEEINeni GC nOOLS es wa vinte) eter lel city tr en ire, Mae MO en Lankan 28 
Relationship between Mission, Private, and Government Schools 35 
CRAM MEET BES PTSEILIONT oT TUT TACN eee dd clcid. se lakes bake MINT ee Aca le See 37 
SED UA RIC, HAsenOr Gulia COCOONS Mohit kal. wai ae pai aaa Marae 37 
Elimination in the Schools as a Whole......................0.- 38 
Geographical Distribution of Educational Institutions.......... 39 
Number of Girls in School Compared with the Total Number of 
Devise Ole SCHOOLS A RE Me sive s/s cates cate tae eee Cheer eaters 40 
PAT Teo 
1. Tam SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION 6.000050 5 fie cle ee wed danens 42 
RG EL NOU COLE ELCACAL CINE ier cas Dial ct plein caked tal ret by a ad oat anaes 42 
PNEREROCUL TG Wein Wie Aa te each a Ons ats cit Men la te a aha at tam kets 43 
II. Tae Soctan ENVIRONMENT AND ASPIRATIONS OF THE CHINESE 
oLetS USP DALAT REL MRNA Do GA ee MRI AROS BRU AM lr CASTOR ASANTE 45 
SUETSI EW Ne) Rn eb Te Rea asia tag aad of a NU, iv iD ay SER RG CN enn MR ga 45 
POCA TIONILC CALLUS eo ste ee ert ah URI a ego aie a 48 
HOMEPHPIASHONSDIDS wale aireies Masa oot Mela Gia wine acanty ten ane eam AQ 
DoT CLEEL EN) Cha hey NR a PONE OEE AUC ARS USNS MRA RT LARS BPC IE Gg 54 
BEL OML HE OL ABSIRIC MTTON OR TE LIB IUR a wis tieeie behave aes, oie Risk el eraie ein he mateo 55 
AGE TOIBUME OIL eo ere emt ur rater cins Oise tata Oa,’ geNPR aerate 55 
Amount of Under-Age, Normal-Age, and Over-Age............. 60 
BY. Lum SUBJECTS IN THE: CURRICULUM © o's «| odio acs a ton sche Reatenncoamrn eipiens 67 
The Subjects Reported by the Girls of Each Grade............. 67 
An Analysis of the Curriculum in the Light of the Investigation... 80 
phe: Resnits of the Inverstiwacion. oichy civ svi ema iinieiless ety Ouiate wniene 82 
DR SESICTATEION (75.0 hc ase e nee re Canteen cy: co allay Nive & te MENU Ol stirbitos Spc Ae satay 84 
PSII ITAT OF: LCSILIUS . rc at orion Garter ayo wile eke eP ipinl e aT aces gen eee 84 
ELECTS IONS Ltt yak ee a ta ietate: alate dk also een ka erates 85 


DEAE TRME TSN Ss @ Ge Meee IN tp Pi Lakai Sis GE aR mR CORR Seen ooh PELE REDE DR PRA CU AS Me 90 


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THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN CHINA 
INTRODUCTION 


Education in China has for many centuries been.a basic factor 
_in nation and society. Before 1901—03,! under the examination 
system, education in the classics was the route by which the poor- 
‘est lad in the most remote village might become the highest 
official in the realm. To win a degree, and thus bring honor to 
parents and village, was the epitome of filial piety and social 
service. The lettered man, by sheer virtue of his knowledge, has 
always received from the entire population a deep, almost rev- 
erent respect. Education consisted mainly of a mastery of the 
classics.2, Since the discovery of printing,’? each succeeding gen- 
eration in China has added to its literature of written tradition, 
history, poetry and philosophy. The people thus crystallized 
the ideals which they wrought out through experience. This 
literature, especially the Five Classics and the Four Books, has 
had a tremendous influence in the life of the country. Mem- 
orized and expounded, the classics were the only text-books of the 
schools. Scholars deepened their thought by meditation upon the 
words of the sages. Morality was measured by that of the an- 
cients. From the city on the coast to the tiny village near the 
headwaters of the Yangtze, political, family and individual life 
was consciously tested by the principles of the Sacred Books of 
the Middle Kingdom. Ethical relationship and right conduct is 
the theme of the classics, and was the chief subject of thought and 
discussion before the modern era in education. 

The new education, which introduced science, modern history, 
and, in mission schools, the Bible, from the West over seventy- 
five years ago,’ has been a powerful force in recent social and 
political change. Throughout the entire nation its effects are 
evident in bringing about progressive movements. 


1 Kuo, P. W., The Chinese System of Public Education, p. 78. 

2 Ibid., pp. 34-35. 

3 Fu Hsi (2852 s. c.) the traditional inventor of Chinese writing and founder 
of Chinese history. See Pott, F. L., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 10. 

4 Tbid., p. 4. 


2 The Education of Girls in China 


As a result of these conflicting ideals of education, in every 
Chinese community there are three definite social groups: the 
conservative, still dominated by the ancient educational tradi- 
tions; the progressive, dominated by the ideals of modern educa- 
tion; and the changing, those who are moving from the old to 
the new. 

The conservative group includes both ie illiterate men and 
women and the scholar of the ancient classics. The scholars 
wield great influence in their own communities. They often 
come into relationship with the District Magistrate, which makes 
them men of mark among their fellows. They are constantly 
called upon to assist in the settlement of disputes. At weddings 
and funerals, they are always in places of honor, due to their 
literary degrees.! Their ideals and social attitudes have been 
determined by the standards set forth in the ancient literature of 
China. Because they believe the golden age of China to have 
been in ancient times and that the present and the future of the 
nation depend upon copying closely the deeds of the ancients, 
although new social customs are being rapidly introduced about 
them, these men hold tenaciously to the past and conscientiously 
do their best to block change. 

At the other extreme of the social scale, and yet exerting a tre- 
mendous influence on public opinion, are the illiterate artisans 
and farmers. These people cannot read. Quotations from the 
classics repeated to them by the village literati and bits of homely 
philosophy handed down by word of mouth from generation to 
generation are the bases for their intellectual and social life. 
Their travel is bounded by the neighboring villages. The wel- 
fare of China as a nation holds little meaning for them. They 
neither know nor care about politics beyond those of their own 
village. Limited to this narrow horizon, each man is bound by 
a fierce economic pressure which forces him to work hard at his 
trade or on his farm from early dawn until dark. ‘Contrary to 


1 Smith, A. H., Village Life in China, pp. 132-133. 

2Cf. Bashford, J. W., China, pp. 307-308. ‘The people have not been 
greatly interested in the national government . . . (because) 
the general seas tu et did not confer any widespread and vital benefit een 
the people.’”’ However, it may be that under the Republic the farmers might 
have known or heard of the election of representatives and the like. (Mr. 
T. H. Cheng.) 


Introduction 3 


the theory of certain sociologists, this intensified struggle for 
life has no perceptible effect in promoting economic or social 
improvement. It makes for exertion and strain but not for 
progress, because the prime means of progress are inventions and 
discoveries, and it is just these that bondslaves to poverty, 
under the stress of the struggle to keep alive, are not able to 
bring forth.’”? “It will be at best a couple of lifetimes before 
the plane of existence of the common people will at all approxi- 
mate that of the common people of America.’ Starvation, 
debt, and beggary® are the alternatives to their deadening toil. 
Because of these circumstances the new ideas of progress can 
meet with little response from the great mass of the Chinese 
populace. 

Another powerful conservative factor in society is illiterate 
womanhood. Confined to one village,-unable to read, kept sub- 
-servient until youth is over, superstitious, and fearful of every- 
thing new, the women of most households, in educated circles as 
~well as among the middle and lower classes, are bound to the 
traditions of the locality. Mothers, to whom every child owes 
implicit obedience, refuse to allow their sons to attend progressive 
schools. If a child is sick, and the father calls a western trained 
physician who administers scientific medicine, the mother adds a 
dose of concoction guaranteed by the village medicine man in 
order to make rapid recovery more certain. Wives use their 
whole repertoire of schemes in order to thwart any project of their 
husbands which will involve experiment. These women are not 
to be blamed, for they are victims of a social system. But they 
hang like millstones upon the necks of their families. Until 
womankind be lifted up, China must needs be heavily weighted 
in her struggle for progress. 

Opposed in thought and practice to the conservative element 
in Chinese society is an alert, progressive social group. The 
remarkable changes recently brought about in every phase of 
Chinese life have been the result of their work. Fearless, often 
radical, sometimes uncompromising, they have dared break the 
bonds of tradition, have questioned and denied the supremacy of 


1 Ross, E. A., The Changing Chinese, p. 92. 

2 Tbid., p. 69. : 

3 There are few beggars in a country region where there is no famine. Busi- 
ness failures, and the like, go to the city to beg. 


4 The Education of Girls in China 


the past over the present. They have even paid the price of 
unfilial conduct, when it has been necessary to bring about change. 
They have been educated in modern Chinese, Japanese, Ameri- 
can, and European schools. They have travelled extensively 
and have brought home a changed conception of nation and so- 
ciety. In their open struggle towards democracy, they are push- 
ing universal education, political freedom, economic progress and 
social reform. The men who belong to this group are the officials 
(often lesser officials because they are young men), the business 
men, the physicians, and the educators of China to-day. “A 
recent census of Chinese students in Peking who are returned 
students from Europe, America, and Japan shows that there are 
nearly 950 accounted for in that metropolis and that of these 
806 are engaged in government service. They constitute 23.2 
per cent of the total number of departmental officers, and in 
certain departments, such as the Department of Agriculture 
where special training is particularly valued, they number nearly 
half the total roll of employees. Of the returned students now in 
Peking, 522 are from Japan, 154 are from America, 99 are from 
Great Britain, 52 are from France, 47 are from Germany, 38 are 
from Belgium, 9 are from Austria-Hungary, 7 are from Russia, 
and 1isfrom Spain. As to distribution in various departments, 
it is estimated that in the Ministry of War, 34.1 per cent of the 
total number of officials are returned students; in the Ministry 
of Education, 28.8 per cent; in the Forestry Bureau, 32.2 per 
cent; in the Ministry of Commerce, 48.6 per cent; in the 
National Supreme Court, 40 per cent; in the Ministry of 
Communications, 46.7 per cent. These men are leaders of 
New China.”’! 

Women leaders have also a claim in the progress of China. 
During the Revolution equal suffrage was urged with much vigor 
and earnestness upon the new republic. Women are prominent 
in the Red Cross units of Shanghai and Tientsin, and doubtless of 
other cities. Many of the Chinese private schools are managed 
entirely by women. Contemporaneous literature is enriched by 
women’s magazines, some of which are edited by women. Chi- 
nese women physicians stand out prominently in the medical 
world, and have made large contributions to the well being of 


1 Chinese Students’ Monthly, Vol. XIII, No. 4, p. 193 (February, 1918). 


Introduction 5 


North, Central, East and South China.t Women in institutions 
of learning in every province of China and in many colleges of 
America will carry on the movement which is bringing a new era 
for the women of their nation. 

Between the conservative and progressive groups is a great 
proportion of the population. Touched by the new life and 
thought of the outside world, they are still deeply imbued with 
the spirit of Old China. They read the modern newspaper, but 
think it less important than the study of Chinese history. They 
allow their children to attend modern schools, but insist on home 
memorization of the classics; they permit sons to study in foreign 
lands, but arrange their betrothal with little or no regard for their 
wishes. Members of this group represent all stages of change 
between the old and the new; keen to recognize advantages and 
disadvantages in both the old and the new, they try to combine 
the best in both, to suit their own individual and family needs. 

Advancement of the work, now done relatively unconsciously 
by the individuals of the changing group, is the task which con- 
fronts the modern educator of China. It is a task which must be 
accomplished consciously and with definite purposes. Both the 
old and the new civilizations contribute elements which are 
necessary to present educational effectiveness, but which are now 
to a great extent selected by tradition. The discovery and choice 
of content and methods of education which vary with the needs 
of the conservative, progressive and changing groups of society 
is an outstanding problem of education in China to-day. Within 
this problem, the education of boys and the education of girls 
are differentiated sharply in administration and to some extent 
in content. The purpose of this study is the survey of specific 
aspects of the problem that have to do with the nature of educa- 
tion offered to girls in China, the relation of the present educa- 
tional program to the life of the nation, together with the general 
lines of change and experiment which will make this program 
more efficient. 


1 Dr. Hu King An, graduate of Philadelphia (1894), who has worked in 
South China; Dr. Yamei Kin, who for several years had charge of a govern- 
ment hospital in Tientsin; Dr. Mary Stone, Michigan (1896), who treated 
19,649 patients in her hospital in Kiukiang in 1912; Dr. Ida Kahn, Michigan 
(1896), who has served with great success in her hospital in Nanchang, and 
later in the government hospital in Tientsin. 


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CHAPTER I 
THE TRADITIONAL EDUCATION OF WOMEN 


In the classics the great sages incorporated their ideals for the 
education of women, and each succeeding generation has ac- 
cepted their doctrines in this, as in other fields. The Four Books 
for Girls, Nu Chieh, Nec Hsun, Nu Lun Yu, and the Nu Fan 
Chieh Lu, written by women, simplified and explained the doc- 
trines of the classics concerning their sex, and have been used as 
text-books for the education of girls throughout succeeding gen- 
erations. Thus the classics.and these four books set for the 
women of China the standards of education which were un- 
questioned until the middle of the last.century, and which even 
to-day dominate the.thought..and customs of women in the 
_conservative classes. 

The standards of moral education were filial piety and obedi- 
ence to the husband, submission to the desires of brothers and 
sisters-in-law, and humility of spirit. Of these, the duty of 
filial piety was paramount. It was the root from which all 
Chinese society developed. Both sexes alike shared the obliga- 
tion. Confucius made no distinction between men and women 
when he said, ‘‘ Filial piety and fraternal submission, are they 
not the root of all benevolent actions?’’! In her enumeration of 
woman’s virtues, Jen Hsiao names filial piety as the first,? and 
claims that women as well as men may obtain it to a high degree. 
‘‘Someone says, ‘Such is the filial piety of holy men, women can- 
not attain to it.’ This is not true. Filial piety and brotherly 
love are heaven given dispositions. How can there be a dis- 
tinction between male and female?’? Ceremonials which en- 
sure reverent service at rising and at meals, loving obedience in 
every detail of conduct, and filial anxiety for the constant wel- 
fare and happiness of parents are outlined in detail in the Li 

1 Confucius, Analects, Book I, Chap. IJ. Translated by J. Legge. 


2 Jen Hsiao, Net Hsun, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Headland. 
3 Tbid., Chap. XII. 


2 


~I 


8 The Education of Girls in China 


Ki, one of the greatest of the classics. To incorporate such 
filial conduct into daily life was the most important duty of 
Chinese women, 

The relation of husband and wife is based upon a fundamental 
philosophy of the Chinese people. ‘Great righteousness is 
shown in that man and woman occupy their correct places; the 
relative positions of Heaven and Earth,’ said the Book of 
Changes. Lady Tsao, speaking from the standpoint of a woman, 
agrees that ‘‘The Yin and the Yang, like the male and the fe- 
male, are very different principles. The virtue of the Yang is 
firmness, the virtue of the Yin flexibility.’ ‘If the husband is 
unworthy he cannot govern his wife. If the husband cannot 
govern his wife, the dignity of the household will be deficient. 
If the wife does not serve her husband, the rules of propriety 
will be destroyed.’”4 

The relation of superior and inferior, however, does not in- 
timate that the position of woman is to be despised, nor does it 
follow that marriage is lightly esteemed.’ Mencius recognized 
marriage as ‘‘the greatest of human relationships.’’® Moreover, 
the wife was considered responsible for the conduct of her hus- 
band. Sung Jo Chao has thus set forth clearly her urgent duty, 
‘Tf she finds him in error, she should earnestly reprove him.’’? 
Wang Chieh Fu stated that the success of certain emperors who 
became prosperous was due to the fact that they all had ‘“‘ virtu- 
ous and intelligent inside helpers.’’® The wife is not permitted, 
however, to marry again. ‘‘Once mated with her husband, all 
her life she will not change (her feeling of duty to him) and hence 
when the husband dies, she will not marry again.”® ‘There is 
no second marriage ceremony for a wife.’’!° Of course, this same 


177i Ki, Book X. Translated by J. Legge. 

? Book of Changes, XX XVII, Kia Zan Heragram King Wan’s Explanation. 
Treatise on Than. Translated by J. Legge. 

3 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. III. Translated by I. T. Headland. 

4 Tbid., Chap. II. 

5 See Li Ki, Book IX, Sec. III: 2. 

6 Mencius, Book V, Part I, Chap. II. Translated by J. Legge. 

7 Sung Jo Chao, Nu Lun Yu, Chap. VII. Translated by I. T. Headland. 

§ Wang Chieh Fu, Nu Fan Chieh Lu, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Head- 
land. 

° Ti Ki, Book IX, Sec. III: 7. 

10 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. V. 


The Traditional Education of Women 9 


standard did not apply to the husband. “If a wife dies the 
husband may marry again,’’! says Lady Tsao, interpreting both 
the classics and general usage.2 Nor was possession of con- 
cubines to be considered immoral. The classics recognize this 
system in many places.2 The duty of each wife and concubine 
under this régime was to have love for each other, with no jealous 
feeling. 

On the other hand, when the superiority of the husband, the 
duty of obedience on the part of the wife, and dignity of marriage 
were recognized by both husband and wife, happiness was set 
forth as the result, and, indeed, was often achieved. There are 
several love songs of rare sweetness and of high idealism in the 
classic book of Odes.* A couplet from one of these poems pic- 
tures the beautiful home life: 


Loving union with wife and children 
Is like music with lutes.® 


The fact that the wife was given the rank of the husband in the 
marriage ceremony brought her the duty of obedience to the 
elder brothers and their wives, but gave her the privilege of 
governing those who were younger. Humanly speaking, this 
presented grave dangers for domestic peace; hence Lady Tsao 
advised: ‘‘ Now to win the hearts of your younger brothers and 
sisters there is nothing better than humility and obedience. 

If you understand these two things, you can agree 
exactly with them.’’’ 

_ The motive for the entire code of propriety was to be virtue, 
or humilityof spirit. Mencius expressed the ideal by saying, 
“To look upon compliance as their correct course is the rule of 
women.’’® Lady Tsao writes: ‘‘She should be humble, yielding, 
modest and respectful. First others, then herself. When she 


1 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. V. Translated by I. T. Headland. 

2 Cf. Mencius, Book VII, Chap. VI. 

3 Book of Odes (She King), Part I, Book V:5. Translated by J. Legge. 

li Ki, Book X, Sec. II: 26, 37. Translated by J. Legge. 

4 Cf. Book of Odes (She King), Part Il, Book VII, Ode IV. Jbid., Part I, 
Book I, Ode I. 

5 Ibid., Part II, Book I, Ode IV. 

6 i Ki, Book X, Sec. I: 18. 

7 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. VII. 

8 Mencius, Book III, Part IJ, Chap. II. 


10 The Education of Girls in China 


does good, she ought not to talk about it; when she does wrong, 
she ought not to excuse herself. Even if shame or disgrace are 
put upon her, she should be patient. She should be as careful at 
all times as if she were afraid.”! And yet such conduct was found 
by experience to bring more than its own reward, for, says Lady 
Tsao, ‘‘I have never heard of a woman who possessed these 

virtues who had occasion to grieve because she was un- 
known, or who fell into disfavor.’ Jen Hsiao emphasized the 
fact that ‘‘ virtue comes not from without. Its source is within.’’® 
‘‘EKven while alone you cannot afford to be careless of a single 
thought. You say, ‘No one sees me.’ Can you hide it from 
heaven? You say, ‘No one knows it.’ Do you deceive your 
own heart?’’4 

In spite of their inferior station in society, it was true in China, 
as in all ancient civilizations, that while women were illiterate 
they were not uneducated... The responsibilities of the home were 
heavy and called for many kinds of skill. Vocational standards 
were set high and the instruction which she received fitted the 
girl for such duties as were thought properly hers. 

In common with all people, the Chinese believed the primary 
sphere of woman to bein her home. Here she was supreme. In 
fact, the Li Ki says, ‘‘The men should not speak of what belongs 
to the inside of the house,’’ at the same time adding, ‘‘nor the 
woman of what belongs to the outside.’”® 

Lady Tsao realized the weight of the burden of home work, 
and urged the wife to ‘‘retire late and rise early. Even though 
it takes her till midnight to do it, she should do what she has to do ~ 
regardless of the difficulty of the undertaking. She should work 
until it is completed and be able to do it neatly.’”® 

Both Mencius’ and the Li Ki® emphasize the importance of 
spinning as.an essential part of women’s. work. The Nu Lun 
Yu? outline in detail her duty as manufacturer of cloth fabrics. 


1 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Headland. 
2 Ibid. 

3 Jen Hsiao, Net Hsun, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Headland. 
4 Tbid., Chap. VII. 

5 Ti Ki, Part XII, Book X, Sec. I. Translated by J. Legge. 

§ Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. I. 

7 Mencius, Book III, Chap. III, Part II. (See Book IV) 

8 Ji Kt, Book X, Sec. II: 36. 

§ Sung Jo Chao, Nu Lun Yu, Chap. II. 


The Traditional Education of Women 11 


To woman was also given the task of making and preparing food 
for her family. The Li Ki mentions the meats, soups, vege- 
tables, delicacies and fruits to be used in formal dinners and sac- 
rifices. It also gives recipes for eight delicacies for the aged, 
involving painstaking and skillful preparation of materials with 
the crudest of equipment.! 

Although minute ceremonials which typify and embody the 
duty of children to parents are described in the classics, little is 
sald regarding the duty of parents to children. Filial piety. ex- 
alts the mother.to a place as queen among her children. In the 
books by women, however, there is some mention of the duties of a 
MOUuner ys WOODED 8 ese FINSLTUCLION. . 2) ie) 18. CONNEC 
to her children,’’? writes Jen Hsiao. ‘‘Therule of her instruction 
is to guide them with virtue and with moral rectitude, to educate 
them with modesty and humility, to lead them with diligence 
and economy; to do it with tenderness and love; to watch over 
- them with sternness and faithfulness, thus will she establish 

their bodies and develop their virtue.’’* ‘As stately trees are 
stiff and the branches are not contiguous, as the abyss is clear and 
the fish do not hide in it, or as the sweet gourd clings to the droop- 
ing trees and as many grasses grow in the deep, moist valley, so 
children will be obedient to a tender and benevolent mother. 
This is a certain rule. . . . There are those who substitute 
indulgence for tenderness, blind love for virtue. This will spoil 
their children. That which does not swerve from what is proper, 
but diligently instructs the child is said to be tenderness.’”4 

Perhaps the duty that lifted women higher than any other was 
the duty of assisting her husband at the sacrifices.’ 

Jen Hsiao says: “The husband and wife should together 
offer sacrifices. . . . The empress takes the lead in offering 
sacrifices to the spirits. She is the foundation of the empire. 
She prepares cleanly for the autumn and winter sacrifices, assists 
the emperor in the offering. . . . She stands in the temple 


17% Ki, Book X, Sec. II:6. Translated by J. Legge. 

2 Mr. T. H. Cheng has reported the existence of dame schools in villages in 
the province of Chekiang. They taught reading and writing and some 
arithmetic. : 

3 Jen Hsiao, Nei Hsun, Chap. XVI. Translated by I. T. Headland. 

4 Tbid., Chap. XVIII. 

5 Cf. Book of Odes, Part I, Book II, Ode IJ, Part I, Book II, Ode IV. 


12 The Education of Girls in China 


early and late without thinking of weariness.”’! _The privilege of 
sacrifice at the ancestral tablets was a foregleam of the perma- 
nent honor of wife and mother. _After death her spirit was wor- 
shipped by her descendants.? 

The standards of cultural education for Chinese women were 
also well defined. Music and correct conversation were enjoined, 
and by women themselves, a need for knowledge of books was 
recognized. The Odes speak of a “beautiful, virtuous lady’’ 
who ‘‘can respond to you in songs.’ Every boy in China who 
has studied a year in school has learned these lines from his San 
Tze Ching: 

Tsae Wan Ke could play upon stringed instruments 
Seay Tao Wan likewise could sing and chant. 


These two though girls were intelligent and well informed 
You, then, my lads, should surely rouse to diligence! ® 


In conversation rules were given that ‘‘females should not be 
forward and garrulous, but observe strictly what is correct, 
whether in suggesting advice to her husband, in remonstrating 
with him, or in teaching her children; in maintaining etiquette, 
humbly imparting her experience or in averting misfortune.’’ 
The Nu Chieh sets this standard: ‘‘Choose your words, then 
speak. Of course, you will speak no bad words. Let your words 
be in season, then you will not bore others. This may be said. 
to be the rule for women’s conversation.’’? 

The expressed desire for a broader education in books shows 
very plainly that in spite of their modest compliance with the 
duties placed upon them by society at least some women wished 


1Jen Hsiao, Nei Hsun, Chap. XV. Cf. W. Goodsell, The Family, p. 80. 
This was a marked contrast to the place of woman in the Greek family where 
sacrifice was performed only by the father. 

2 Cf. Book of Odes (She King), Part IV, Book I, Ode IV. Translated by 
J. Legge. Jbid., Ode VII. 

3 Ibid., Part I, Book XII, Ode IV. 

4 San Tze Ching: ‘‘An epitome of all knowledge” which ‘‘every Chinese who 
has learned to read knows by heart.” P. W. Kuo, The Chinese System of 
Public Education, p. 53. 

5 San Tze King, line 158. Translated in the Chinese Repository, Vol. IV, 
p. 110. 

6 Lu Chow, Nu Heo, preface. Translated in the Chinese Repository, Vol. 
IX, p. 544. 

7 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. IV. Translated by I. T. Headland. 


The Traditional Education of Women 13 


for a higher and more wide-reaching standard for their education. 
‘‘Examine now the superior men: They simply know the wife 
ought to be governed and the dignity of the household preserved. 
They, therefore, seek such books as will instruct the boys. It is 
not that the girls do not know that they ought to serve their 
husbands and that the rules of propriety ought to be preserved; , 
but the boys have been instructed and the girls have not. Is” 
not that placing too low an estimate on the relationship of the 
sexes? According to the ancient rules, when boys were eight 
years old, they began to read books and at fifteen they began to 
study. Ought not girls to do likewise?’’! ‘‘ ‘A man’s virtue is 
his ability.’ This saying is nearly true. ‘A woman’s lack of 
ability is her virtue.’ These words are false. Probably they 
did not know that the basis of ability and virtue is intimately 
related to the discussion of good and evil. Virtue promotes 
ability and ability completes virtue. . . . The superior 
man should instruct his sons, should he not also instruct his 
daughter?’” 

The standards of conduct toward members of the family, of 
skill in home-keeping and garment making or cutting, in music, 
conversation, and literature, were directly taught in the home by 
educated parents and governesses, with especial attention before 
marriage.’ Lady Tsao modestly gives her father gratitude for 
instruction, ‘Ignorant and stupid my mind was never quick of 
perception, though I had the good fortune to receive the special 
favor of my father.’ Jen Hsiao, in the preface to the Nev 
Hsun, also bears witness to this custom, ‘‘In my youth, I received 
the instruction of my parents, having studied poetry and class- 
ical books, while at the same time I attended carefully my duties 
as a woman.” Wang Chieh Fu, in the preface of her Nu Fan 
Chieh Lu, ‘‘In youth she was well versed in literature.”’ In ad- 
dition, ‘‘Her governess taught her the arts of pleasing speech 
and manners, to be docile and obedient.’”® 

The classics portray the custom of tutelage just before marriage: 


1Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. IV. Translated by I. T. Headland. 

2 Wang Chieh Fu, Nu Fan Chieh Lu, Chap. X. Translated by I. T. Head- 
land. 

3 Cf. Goodsell, The Family, p. 44. 

4 Lady Tsao, Nw Chieh, preface. 

5 Li Ki, Book X, Sec. II: 36. Translated by J. Legge. 


14 The Education of Girls in China 


‘“‘Anciently for three months before the marriage of a young lady 
she was taught the virtue, the speech, the carriage 
and the work of a wife. When the teaching was accomplished, 
she offered a sacrifice (to the ancestor) using fish for the victim 
and soups made of duck-weed and pond-weed. So was she 
trained to the obedience of a wife.’’! ‘“‘At the marriage of a 
young woman, her mother admonishes her, accompanying her to 
the door on her leaving and cautioning her. ste 
The foregoing ideal of education for women is probably.an im- 
portant reason why the great majority of Chinese women re- 
mained in obscurity. Su Tung Pao, in The Encyclopedia says: 
“Even with superior ability and extraordinary character they 
(women) were not known in the world. Women who have in- 
tellectual, executive qualities cannot utilize these gifts, and those 
with ability in the use of esthetic words are not known to others. 
Then there are many who are good, kind-hearted and virtuous 
and yet are unrewarded.’’? Professor 8. L. Kiang says: ‘‘The 
very fortunate learned something of (books). The middle class 
girls learned to read only the San Tzu Ching (the Three Char- © 
acter Classics), the Pai Chia Hsin (Hundred Family Names) and 
the Nu Sze Hsu (Four Classics for Girls).4_ In the low classes, _ 
_comprising 70 per cent or more of all the women in China, they 
were not even taught to read their own family names. 
It.is not_to be wondered at, then, that’since the Sung time (420 
A.D.), there has heen: a proverb, believed implicitly to be as true 
as the golden rule, “A woman without ability 1 is normal.’ ”’ 
However, to assume that women had no part in “public life in 
China would be untrue. Even in Chinese history where there 
was no avowed purpose to preserve adequately the contributions 
of womankind, the records abound with references to great women 
and their deeds. There have been empress dowagers, who, ris- 
ing from comparative obscurity, have seized the power of the 
kingdom and have ruled people, officials and palace with severe 


17Ti Ki, Book XLI:10. Translated by J. Legge. 

2 Mencius, Part II, Book III, Chap. IJ. Translated by J. Legge. 

>The Encyclopedia, Vol. XXI, p. 18-19. Translated from the original 
with the aid of Mr. T. H. Cheng. 

4Cf. p. 7. 

5 Kiang, S. C., Woman and Education in China. 


The Traditional Education of Women 15 


eficiency.! Other women, consorts of the emperors, have ab- 
sorbed the attention of their masters and have caused the down- 
fall of dynasties.? Still others have aided their husbands in 
ruling, and have wisely advised in matters of state.’ 

In addition to historical references, many books have been 
written with the specific aim of preserving for posterity the mem- 
ory of wonderful women. The first books were written by Lu 
Hsiang* (approximately 80 B.c.). The qualities for which women 
were celebrated are not in every case those which are admired by 
the Occident, for they emphasize social rather than political abil- 
ities. The Biographies of Eminent Women (Lieh Nu Chuan) 
include 19 examples of women who were far-sighted and benev- 
olent; 19 who were celebrated because of chastity; 18 who re- 
fused to marry after widowed whether by the death of husband 
or betrothed; 18 who were celebrated for far-sightedness and 
widowhood; 18 who should be considered as warnings for girls; 
16 who were great mothers; and 16 who were celebrated for their 
docility and constancy.’ Later (684 a.p.) Wang Chieh Fu in- 
cluded in her Short Records of Exemplary Women (Nu Fan Chieh 
Lu) eighty-six short biographies of those who were great.. Her 
classification followed closely that of Lu Hsiang, adding 15 ex- 
amples of virtuous empresses, and 14 who were noted for filial 
piety. In the great encyclopedia Ku Chin T’u Shu Chi Ch’eng, 
published in 1726, which was designed by the Emperor K’ang 
Hsi, ‘‘to provide a comprehensive survey of all that was best 
in the literature of the past, dealing with every branch of 
knowledge,’’® 376 volumes are devoted to the works and lives of 
women. The classification here is still broader, and devotes 


1ZLu Chieh (194 B.c.), Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 38; 
Empress Wu (684 a.p.), Pott, F. L. H., loc. cit., p. 64; J. Bashford, China, 
p. 588; Empress Tze Hsi (1861-1908 a.p.), Bashford, J. W.., loc. cit., pp. 312 ff.; 
Bland and Blackhouse, China under the Empress Dowager. 

2 Moh Hsi (1818 s.c.), Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 16; Ta 
Chi (1154 B.c.), ibid., p. 20, Pao Ssu(781 B.c.), ibid., p. 25. 

3Empress Kiang Hou (806 B.c.), Bashford, J. W., loc. cit., p. 570; Em- 
press, wife of T’ai Tsung (620 a.p.), ibid, pp. 585-6; Lady Ma (1370 «.D.), 
ibid., p. 598. 

‘Giles, H. A., History of Chinese Literature, p. 92. 

5 Compiled from the Index of Lieh Nu Chuan and translated by T. H. 
Cheng. 

6 Giles, L., Alphabetical Index to the Chinese Encyclopedia, Introduction, p. 6. 


16 The Education of Girls in China 


five volumes to those who became generals and military leaders, 
ten to those celebrated for their beauty, and one to those who 
were skillful in embroidery, painting and music.! 

Not only were books written about women, but women them- 
selves have contributed to the upbuilding of Chinese literature. 
Paradoxical though it may seem, the-Book of Odes (She King) 
includes, as an integral part-of the nation’s most sacred litera- 
ture, at least ten-poems written by women. Commentators? 
agree that in Part I, Book III, Odes II, III, 1V,and V were written 
by Chwang Keang and, in the same book, Ode XIV was written 
by a daughter of the house of Wei who longed to revisit her home. 
Similarly,Odes I and X, in Book IV, Odes V and VII, in Book V, 
were written by Chinese ladies of the Inner Courts. In addition 
to those in the classics, Chinese literature abounds in poems 
written by women. Among these may be mentioned Lady P’an, 
whose ‘‘Autumn Fan’’’ is known by all students of Chinese lit- 
erature. China’s history is indebted toa woman, Lady Tsao 
(50-112 a.p.),4 for its record of the Later Han Dynasty. She 
was also the author of Instruction for Women (Nu Chieh). 
Later, Sung Jo Chao® (785-805 a.p.) compiled the Analects for 
Women (Nu Lun Yu). Later (1404 a.p.) Jen Hsiao® wrote her 
Teaching of the Inner Courts (Nei Hsun). Wang Chieh Fu’ 
(970-1127 a.p.) selected from the examples of ancient women 
those who should be imitated by the girls of her generation, in 
her Short Records of Exemplary Women (Nu Fan Chieh Lu). 
These four books comprise ‘‘The Four Classics for Girls.”” The 
Ku Kwo Wen Chi, a group of twenty-six volumes, is perhaps the 
most pretentious work by women. It is a collection of Chinese 
literary productions which were written by three hundred and 
seventy-three women. Still other writings are scattered through 
history, letters, memorials, and the miscellaneous books of the 
country. They have become an integral part of the great Chi- 


1 Giles, L., Alphabetical Index to the Chinese Encyclopedia, Introduction, p. 6. 

2 Cf. Notes, Book of Odes (She King); also The Little Preface. 

* Cf. Giles, H. A., History of Chinese Literature, p. 101. 

* Faber, E., The Famous Women of China, p. 46. 

a bidlip.13: 

CIDE D2: 

‘Ibid., p. 13; Williams, S. W., History of China, p. 39; Chinese Repository, 
Vol. IV, p. 106. 

8 Faber, E., The Famous Women of China, p. 11. 


The Traditional Education of Women 17 


nese literature and are not separated because they are the product 
of the work of women. 

The standards of woman’s conduct set in the classics cannot be 
accepted as a literal picture of actual womanhood either in an- 
cient or in modern times. Miss Sophia H. Chen, of Vassar Col- 
lege, says: ‘‘There has always been a minority who received edu- 
cation. In certain families the tradition of well educated women 
is kept up: One would learn the art of painting, another that of 
penmanship, still another the art of poetry!”’! To-day in almost 
every home of refinement a private school is held for the sons of 
the family. Here the daughters are often permitted to learn the 
classics with their brothers, memorizing the same works under the 
same teachers. Furthermore, native ability and power of per- 
sonality have often triumphed over cramping tradition. Never- 
theless, that the teachings of the classics have moulded social 
attitudes toward women is undeniable. To-day, in conservative 
Chinese homes, the women are enjoined to be filial daughters, 
obedient wives and submissive sisters. The mother-in-law is 
the guardian and absolute ruler, by whom punishment to unruly 
daughters-in-law is meted out. The husbands, while often 
kindly toward, and sometimes fearful of the displeasure of their 
wives, are at liberty to bring home concubines.? Parents still 
decide whether or not a daughter may be educated, almost in- 
variably preferring the son in education. They arrange for her 
marriage® with little regard for her wishes. In many homes the 
daughter has not been outside the courtyard of her father’s 
house, and rarely, save in the progressive centers, is a girl per- 
mitted alone upon the streets. The home is considered the only 
proper sphere for women, and the tasks of the home their only 
proper work. In many interior places the women and girls 
spin and weave for the family all the clothing from hats to shoes. 


Household management and care of children according to tradi- eae 


tional rules, a long life of drudgery with a crown of honor and 
power in old age, is the lot of most women in China. The tra- 
ditional ideals of education, held by the conservative classes, 
are an integral part of the situation to-day. Upon the founda- 
tion laid centuries ago will the new education for women be built. 


1 Personal letter to the writer, February 19, 1918. 
2 There is a growing movement among the progressive group, both men 

and women, to make this custom unlawful. ) 
8 This applies equally to sons. 


CHAPTER II 
THE MODERN MOVEMENT IN WOMEN’S EDUCATION 


MIssIon SCHOOLS 


In 1842 the cities of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and 
Shanghai were opened to foreign trade as treaty ports.! Thus it 
was made possible for missionaries to establish schools in the 
coast cities of Central and Southern China. The ignorance and 
superstitution of the women deeply impressed these early pio- 
neers. Foot binding and killing of infant girls were prevalent. 
The people were eager for the education of sons, but the daughters 
of the common people were thought scarcely worthy of such 
attention. However, in the face of apathy? and even of opposition, 
schools for girls were opened, first by the Protestant missionaries, 
followed soon after by the Catholic missionaries. Miss Aldersey, 
a member of the Church of England, was the pioneer of women’s 
education. At Ningpo in 1844 she opened the first school for. 
Chinese girls, and supported it from her own income.? In 18474 
the Presbyterian Mission (which had founded its station in 1845°) 
started in this city another girls’ school with two pupils. The 
movement quickly spread to the other cities, and representatives 
opened schools: Mrs. Bridgeman in Shanghai under the Amer- 

ican Board in 1849;* Mrs. Maclay in Foochow under the Meth- 


1See Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, pp. 138-139. 

2“A Jady connected with the Chinese Mission’”’ writes in 1855, ‘in 
the girls’ day school I found fourteen scholars. . . . Theold lady (teacher) 
reminded me that girls in the country were very stupid and dull; but that they 
would learn by and by. She told me they were unwilling to attend without 
receiving some cash, because they thought it necessary to do some work every 
day toearnrice. Soltold her . . . that each pupil was to have 20 cash 
(or 1} cents) per day. ‘Oh, then,’ she replied, ‘they will be eager to study.’ ” 
The Spirit of Missions, July, 1855, p. 319. 

3See Burton, M., Education of Women in China, p. 35; Dean, The China 
Mission, p. 141; Presbyterian Mission Report, 1858, p. 87. 

* Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1847, p. 32. 

5 Tbid., 1845, p. 22. 

6 Report, American Board of Foreign Com., 1849, p. 165. 


18 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education 19 


odist Mission in 1851;! the Episcopal Mission in Shanghai in 
1852; the American Board in Foochow in 1853;3 the Presbyterian 
Board in Canton in 1853; the American Board in Canton in. 
1854;> the Presbyterian Board in Shanghai in 1857;° the Baptist 
Board at Ningpo in 1858;’ the Wesleyan Church at Canton,® 
and the Reformed Church at Amoy® in 1860. 

In 1858 a treaty with the American, English, and French 


governments gave to Protestant and Catholic missionaries official s*” 


permission to propagate their faiths in any part of the country.!° 
This opened the whole of China to mission work. For six years 
public opinion thwarted all efforts towards girls’ schools in North 
China," but finally, in 1864, seven girls in Tientsin, and five 
girls in Peking entered American Board schools. In 1872, 
thirteen girls entered the Presbyterian Mission at Chefoo. The 
pioneer school of Central China was founded in Kiukiang by the 
Methodist Mission in 1873. Gradually at first and then in rapid 
succession girls’ schools under the missions have been opened, 
until to-day they are found in many cities. A large proportion 
of these are founded by American and British societies, but Nor- 
way, Sweden, Germany, and Switzerland are also represented. 

_The course of study in these schools followed the contemporary 
studies in the West. The Report of the Presbyterian School in 
Ningpo for 1849 gives the following schedule of studies: ‘‘ The 
girls are taught to read their own language. They do not learn 


1 Report, Methodist Board of Foreign Missions, 1851, p. 134. 

2 The Spirit of Missions, November, 1852, p. 408. 

3 Report, American Board of Foreign Com., 1853, p. 132. 

4 Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1854, p. 48 ° 

5 Report, American Board of Foreign Com., 1854, p. 139. 

6 Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1857, p. 71. 

7 Report, American Baptist Mission Union, 1860, p. 65. 

8 Wesleyan Report, 1860, p. 40. 

® Reformed Church Report of Foreign Missions, 1860, p. 20. 

10See Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 155. Original text of 
treaty in Methodist Missions Report, 1859, p. 23. 

* Report, American Board of Foreign Missions, 1864, p. 129. 

22 Tbid., 1865, p. 126. 

13 Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1872, p. 85. 

14 Cf. China Mission Year Book, 1917. 

16 The Report of the School Committee of Brighton, Mass., 1849-50, p. 19, 
speaks of the following subjects examined in District III: Reading, Geography, 
Arithmetic, oral and written, Philosophy, Dialogues and Singing. 


20 The Education of Girls in China 


the Chinese classics but study books containing Christian in- 
struction, and some elementary books..in..science. They are 
taught Scriptural history orally by means of questions and 
answers. Arithmetic and geography form a part of their studies, 
and two of the girls are learning English. They are trained to 
habits of industry, and taught in such kinds of work as will fit 
them for usefulness in the stations they may occupy in future 
life.’ The school in Foochow included in its courses of study 
‘‘Christian morals and doctrine, geography, history, astronomy, 
mathematics, and daily reading of the Bible; also needlework and 
domestic economy.’ It was “expected that all graduates be 
able to make, wash, and mend their own clothes, to cook and 
take care of the house.’’ 

Bible study was given especial emphasis in order to bring the 
girls more closely in touch with Christian doctrine and perchance 
to win them to a belief in Christianity. A mission school in 
Swatow characterizes its curriculum as “mainly scriptural, 
though the girls learn other things . . . which will be useful 
to them when they return home. . . . Two Methodist 
American brothers were present at the examination and were 
much pleased with the recitations, particularly that given by the 
older girls in the book of Romans, and went so far as to say that 
they could outdo some theological schools at home.’’4 

Gradually political history of other nations as well as of China, 
English language, and the Chinese classics became a part of the 
curriculum. In 18838, the progressive Chinese demanded “new 
educational methods, ‘including the study of English, the Chinese 
classics, music and other accomplishments’ ”’ so insistently in one 
of the missions of Southern China that it led to the introduction 
of these subjects.® | 

Some years later, English is spoken of as ‘‘somewhat of an 
experiment as taught in the school,” but the widened course of 
study justified itself, for the girls showed progress. In addition, 
the study ‘‘broadened and strengthened their minds, and made 


1 Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1849, p. 36. 

? Report, Methodist Board of Foreign Missions, 1864, p. 25. 

3 [bid., 1864, p. 25. 

4 Report, Woman’s Baptist Society, 1882, p. 78. 

> Report, Women’s Foreign Mission Society, Methodist Church, 18838, p. 24. 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education 21 


them freer in giving expression to the experience of their hearts.’”! 
Participation in household duties and industrial arts remained an 
integral part of the school progress. In Tungchow the girls spent 
from one until three o’clock every day at some hand-work. They 
knew ‘‘how to do some kinds of embroidery and to make tidies. 
All but four were able to spin. . . . A well-to-do church 
member . . . engaged to take all the thread made in ex- 
change for cloth.’ In Ningpo, ‘‘the girls did all the cleaning, 
washing and cooking . . . to help the mission in its time of 
difficulty.’’® 

During the past twenty years the curriculum has been changed 
_as-the curriculum of the West has been changed. Physical cul- 
_ture, general reading, elementary science, hygiene and domestic 
science have been included. The present course of study of the 
Central China Christian Educational Association requires for the 
lower primary school courses in Scripture, Chinese classics, 
Chinese language, history, geography, elementary science, object 
lessons, with English optional; for the higher primary schools, 
courses in Scripture, Chinese classics, Chinese language, history, 
geography, science (science readers and physiology), mathe- 
matics, English; for the middle schools, Scripture, Chinese 
classics, Chinese composition, history, geography, zodlogy, 
botany, physics, chemistry, mathematics (algebra, geometry, 
trigonometry) with psychology as an alternative, and English.* 
The Keen School (Chung Hsi) of Tientsin thus outlines its pro- 
gram for advance: ‘‘ We (desire to) see every girl who graduates 
from Keen School in the future going out with something she can 
teach others, and by which she might earn her own livelihood if 
necessary. (This . . . calls) for normal training and prac- « 
tice work, including places for day school, kindergarten, indus- 
trial work and domestic science.’”® Sn 

Mission schools of all Protestant churches and all grades are 
united under the Chinese Christian Educational Association® 
with an advisory council made up of members from eight geo- 


1 Report, Women’s Foreign Mission Society Methodist Church, 1886, p. 30. 
2 Woman’ gW ork for Woman, January, 1877, p. 372. 

3 Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1899, p. 43. 

4 The Educational Review, July, 1916. 

5 Report, North China Woman’s Conference (Methodist), 1917, p. 9. 

6 China Mission Year Book, 1907, p. 378. 


22 The Education of Girls in China 


graphical districts. The central association discusses questions 
of wide significance, and formulates plans for educational prog- 
ress. Affiliated associations in Fukien, Kwangtung, Shantung 
and Honan, Manchuria, Chili and Shansi, Hunan, West, Central 
and East China! adapt and put into execution the suggestions of 
the general committee, and propose further problems for con- 
sideration. Each association has adopted a course of study to be 
the standard for its district, and honors of some kind are given 
to those schools which reach the standard set. Uniform exami- 
nations are being introduced in several systems, and in the West 
China Union two executive officers give full time to supervision 
and administration. Membership in these associations is volun- 
tary. No distinction is made between girls’ and boys’ schools. 
The system of girls’ education as outlined by the missionary 
union may be illustrated by Figure 1. 

Lower primary schools.are scattered through the villages near 
the larger centers. These are usually day schools, although 
lower primary, higher primary, and middle schools are often 
incorporated into one so-called ‘‘boarding school.”’ The divid- 
ing line in the primary schools is not uniform in the various asso- 
ciations. Some divide the course into three years for the lower 
primary schools and four years for the higher primary schools. 
The middle school endeavors to prepare girls both for teaching 
and for. college through elective courses. In addition, many 
centers have established special schools for the training of 
teachers. There are four centers where instruction of college 
grade is given to women: North China Woman’s College, a 
union institution at Pekin; Ginling College, a union institution 
at Nanking; Foochow Woman’s College and the American Board 
College in Foochow; Canton Christian College in Canton, and 
the Church Missionary Society in Fukien. The total attendance 
at these colleges in 1916 was sixty-four girls.2, A Union medical 
school in Peking and denominational centers in other cities pre- 
pare women to become physicians. A large proportion of the 
hospitals train women nurses. 


“~~ The influence of girls’ mission schools in China, both in pre- 


paring teachers and in bringing about a social demand for 
women’s education, has been exceedingly strong. Teachers in 


1 Gamewell, F. D., Report in Educational Review, July, 1915. 
2 See China Mission Year Book, 1917. 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education oa 


the missions are recruited as far as possible from their own 
graduates, and many of the teachers in government institutions 
for girls have been trained in the missions. Mr. P. W. Kuo says: 
“Perhaps the earliest source of obtaining teachers capable in a 


— 2 YEARS 


Fig. 1. Tue Mission EpUCATIONAL SYSTEM, 


way to meet the new demand was the missionary schools. 
Some of the better and higher institutions managed by mission- 
aries turned out many graduates more or less fitted to assume the 
responsibility of teaching in new schools. It is but natural that 
they were sought for by the government as well as by private 
schools.’”! 

1P. W. Kuo, Training of Teachers in China, pp. 19-20. (Master’s thesis, 


Teachers College, 1912. 
3 


24 The Education of Girls in China 


- The mission schools have also helped to overcome the preju- 
dice toward education of girls and are now doing what they can 
to meet the popular demand for increased opportunities. Mrs. 
Ashmore, after about fifteen years of service, gives her experi- 
ence: ‘‘when I first took the school we were obliged to tease the 
parents for the privilege of educating their girls. Now I am con- 
tinually asked, ‘Is there any room in the schools for my girls?’ 
They know they must make application before school opens in 
order to get them in.” ‘Said an old native preacher who was 
listening to the examination (of the Foochow Girls’ School), ‘Ac- 
cording to this, our girls ought to eat the rice grains, and our boys, 
the rice water.’’’? ‘‘ Perhaps the most remarkable change is that 
with respect to the education of women and girls,” writes Bishop 
Huntington. ‘‘Our own schools are utterly inadequate to meet 
the growing demands. The girls’ academy at Hengchow (an 
interior city of Hunan) reports attendance larger than the build- 
ing could comfortably accommodate. Were we ready to receive 
them, three times our number would be glad to attend.’” 

The growth in the number of girls in Protestant mission schools 
in China may be seen from the following table: 


In 1849,‘ 3 schools, probably fewer than 50 pupils 
In 1860,5 12 schools, approximately 196 pupils 
In 1869,§ 31 schools, 556 pupils 
In 1877,’ 38 schools, 524 pupils 
~ In 1896,8 308 schools, 6,798 pupils 
In 1910,° (no report available), 16,190 pupils 
In 1915,!° 45,168 pupils 
In 1916," 50,173 pupils 


1 Report, Woman’s Baptist Missionary Society, 1898, p. 151. 

* Report, W. F. M.S. of the Methodist Church, 1899, p. 42. 

3 Report, Protestant Episcopal Church, 1913, p. 213. 

*Compiled from Presbyterian Report, 1849; American Board Foreign 
Mission Report, 1849. 

5 Compiled from Baptist Report, 1860; Presbyterian Report, 1860; Amer- 
ican Board Report, 1860; Wesleyan Report, 1860. Checked by the reports of 
all other reports of missions in China at that time. 

6 Chinese Recorder, Vol. II, p. 61 (August, 1869). 

7 Compiled from Records of the Missionary Conference, May, 1877, p. 326. 

§ Compiled from The China Mission Handbook, 1896. 

* Compiled from The World Atlas of Christian Missions, 1910. 

10 Compiled from China Mission Year Book, 1916. 

1 [bid., 1917. 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education 25 


The first sisters of the Catholic Church reached China on June 
21, 1848.1. They were the pioneers among those who have 
established work in many cities of the nation. Although school 
work has been only one phase of their service, it has been con- 
sidered a very important activity. Rev. J. A. Walsh, president 
of Maryknoll, writes: “‘In my recent journey I found schools for 
girls in Tientsin, Peking, Chentingfu, Paotingfu, Hankow, 
Shanghai, Hongkong, Canton, and every other place I visited. 
Some of these schools were for somewhat advanced scholars, and 
were attended by daughters of well-to-do Chinese. Others were 
for children of the poor, and of such schools there are seemingly as 
many as there are missions.’”’? The subjects taught in the lower 
schools are much like those in Protestant mission schools. Mrs. 
Little reports a visit to one of them: ‘‘The girls read (Chinese) 
fairly,and then sang. . . . They could not answer questions 
in arithmetic, but all had rosy cheeks, clean faces, and bright in- 
telligent eyes.”? The subjects outlined for the Canton school, 
which may be considered typical, are: ‘‘ English, French, music, 
drawing, the usual grammar and high school branches and most 
important of all, Catholic doctrine, principles and practice.’ 

_ In 1912 the enrollment of girls in the higher schools was 1453, 
in the lower schools, 48,534,° making a total of 49,987 girls in 
Catholic schools. 


PRIVATE SCHOOLS 


_In 1897 the first school for girls, established and financed by 
the Chinese people, was opened. Mr. King Ling Shan, together 
with other leading men of Shanghai, resolved at their first meet- 
ing that ‘‘as gentlemen they could finance the scheme, but that 
the executive management should be entrusted to their wives. 
Accordingly, in due time a committee of ladies undertook the 
further management of the enterprise.”® The school opened 
with an enrollment of sixteen on June first. In 1898 a day school 


1 Catholic Missions, April, 1913, p.57. See Streit, P.C., Atlas Hierarchicus. 
p. 42. 

2 Rev. J. A. Walsh, personal letter, April 26, 1918. 

3 Mrs. A. Little, Jn the Land of the Blue Gown, p. 123. 

4 Catholic Missions, May, 1910, p. 76. 

5 Zeitschrift fiir Missions-Wissenschaft, 1912, p. 212. 

6 Triennial Report of the China Educational Association, 1899, p. 160. 


26 The Education of Girls in China 


in another part of the city was added. In May, 1899, there were 
thirty-five girls in the older school and twenty girls in the new day 
school. They taught English, Chinese books, drawing, painting, 
geography, arithmetic, and foreign sewing. A reaction which 
was preliminary to the Boxer uprising closed this school in 1899.! 
As soon as the anti-Western furor had subsided, in 1901 a changed 
Empress Dowager issued an edict? permitting the opening of 
girls’ schools. Slowly at first, then, as they succeeded and met 
with no governmental antagonism, more rapidly, schools were 
opened. The following table shows the growth of the movement 
in Shanghai: 
190i—Wu Pen School (Strive for Duty) 
1902—I Kwo School (Love for Country) 
1903—Chung Mang School (Worship the Noble) 
1904—Ch’eng Tung School (East of the City) 
1905—Anglo Chinese School 
T’ien Tsu Hwei (Natural Feet Society) 
Chi Sin School (Cultivate Elegance) 
Pei Hao School (Develop Goodness) 
1906—Fu Chiang School (Help to Attain Strength) 
Ching Hwa School (Struggle for Reform) 
Tsai Nyi School (Silk Worm Industry)’ 


‘“‘In. Tientsin in 1906 there were five girls’ schools under gov- 
ernment supervision with an aggregate attendance of about 250 
women and girls.’’* In Peking the Manchu princesses opened 
several schools for girls which set an example that common people 
might follow without fear.® 

The private schools have since then flourished in every part of 
China. After the Revolution in 1911, an even greater impetus 
was given to woman’s education, and many wealthy citizens 
founded girls’ schools as an evidence of their patriotism. A 
widow of Hangchow, Chekiang Province, opened a school with 
funds subscribed by officials and progressive citizens. The 
school flourished the first year, but the second year her request for 


1 Chinese Recorder, October, 1899, p. 500. 

* Headland, I. T., Court Life in China, p. 108. 

3 See Paddock, Estelle, article in Woman’s Work in the Far East, June, 1907, 
p. 79. 

4See Mrs. M. L. Taft’s article in Woman’s Work in the Far East, Septem- 
ber, 1906, p. 105. 

5 Headland, I. T., Court Life in China, Chap. XIV. 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education 27 


funds did not meet with ready response. After a desperate effort 
she wrote to the officials saying, ‘‘ When these letters reach you, 
I will be a corpse, as I propose to take my own life in order to 
arouse public sentiment to the importance of the education of 
girls.”’ This brought about the desired result, for memorial 
funds were quickly raised to perpetuate the work of this martyr 
to the cause of woman’s education.1 

One of the most interesting of the schools founded at this time 
was the Ching Tsun School in Tientsin, managed entirely by 
some of the graduates of the Girls’ Normal School. “It was 
started by a group of these girls just before they graduated last 
summer (1912). It is now (1918) directed by six or seven of 
them who do all the teaching . . . and give their services 
free. Two live at the school and spend their whole time there, 
but the rest are teaching elsewhere as well, and only give a few 
hours per week to . . . Ching Tsun. . . . Each of the 
girls . . . gave her first month’s salary to support this school. 
It is now kept up in part by these funds, but gets a grant 
of $60.00 (Mexican) per month from the local educational au- 
thorities, which covers rent. The furniture is old stock 
from the Normal School. Scholars pay one dollar (Mexican) 
per month . . . which goes toward food for the teachers 
who live at the school, together with servants’ wages, etc. In 
December there were over 50 scholars; 14 in the senior class and 
over 30 in the lower class, whose ages ranged from 5 or 6 to 15 or 
16 years. The fact that the total number of scholars has now 
reached 98 with 23 in the senior class and 75 in the junior speaks 
well for the good management and popularity of the school.’ 

_A great impetus has been given to industrial trainingfor girls 
through these institutions. ‘‘The Cheng Tung School of Shang- 
hai offers an extension course in practical arts, including satchel 
making, embroidery, lace work, pasteboard work and drawing.’” 
“At Nantung, Mr. Chang established a school for girls 
with courses in silk culture, raising silkworms, unravelling co- 
coons, spinning, tailoring, cooking, weaving rushes, artificial 


1 See Cyclopedia of Education, ‘‘China, Recent Educational Reform,” Vol. I, 
p. 638. 

?Saxelby, E. Mary, Woman’s Work in Tientsin, April, 1913, pamphlet. 

3 Translated from Chinese Educational Review, 1909, with aid of T. H. 
Cheng, ‘‘Shih Chuan,”’ p. 45. 


28 The Education of Girls in China 


flower making.’’! In Changsha a special school for embroidery 
was started.2, In Hsiang Twan there are four special courses: 
Sewing, silkworm rearing, dyeing, and crocheting.2 Some of 
these schools open their doors, only to fail, but the courses they 
offer grow out of the needs of the people. There is an expressed 
desire for education for women that will give definite, measurable 
results in a short time. 

The private schools include all grades, and every degree of 
efficiency from that.one which taught English from A to L,‘ to 
the. Chu Nan Girls’ Normal School, equipped with garden, in- 
firmary and gymnasium, offering normal, higher, and lower 
elementary courses and reporting in.1916 a total enrollment of 
301.5 Many of these schools have become incorporated as 
government schools. 


GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS 


In 1901 the edict of the Empress Dowager Tze Hsi permitted 
the establishment of girls’ schools in China. The immediate 
response in the numbers of private schools revealed the desire of 
the people for such education. However, not until 1907° were 
schools for. girls definitely. and..officially provided for by the 
government. _Then.a system of education was outlined similar 
to that planned for boys’ schools in 1903.. When the educational 
laws for the Republic were drawn up in 1912, the Minister of 
Education issued this most important order: ‘“‘The firmness of 
the foundation upon which the Republic of China has been 
founded depends on Education. Under the new form of govern- 
ment the responsibilities of the officials and private individuals 
who are engaged in educational work are greater and heavier 
than ever before. The backwardness of our country, that has 
hindered China from competing with the World Powers, is not 


1 Translated from Chinese Educational Review, May 25, 1912, with aid of Mr. 
T. H. Cheng, ‘‘Shih Chuan.”’ 

2 Tbid., September 10, 1910. “Shih Chuan,”’ p. 80. 

3 Ibid , 1916. 

4 Mrs. Gamewell, Gateway to China, p. 121. 

> Translated from the Chinese Educational Review, 1916, with the aid of Mr. 
T. H. Cheng. 

§ Kuo, P. W., Chinese System of Public Education, pp. 78, 101, 104. 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education 29 


due to the stupidity or laziness of its people, but is due to lack of 
education. We must, hereafter, make our best effort to develop 
and encourage women’s education as well as that for men. We 
must emphasize and provide for social as well as for school 
education.’’! 

To make the education of girls more possible, the Board of 
Education decreed on May 11, 1912, that ‘‘In the lower.elemen- 
tary grades, boys and girls may attend the same school.’ The 
boys and girls in higher primary schools, however, are required to 
form. ‘separate classes.2 

Soon followed the order that definitely established the ideal 
of universal education and the aim of the minimum length for 
school life. The law makes no distinction between girls and boys. 
‘Every child, after the second day of its sixth year of age, should 
enter primary school until fourteen years of age. Children 
below six years of age cannot be forced to attend school.’’* The 
present regulation for universal education characterizes the ages 
from six to fourteen..as.the “learning years” of each child. 
Parents and guardians are responsible for the failureof.their 
children to attend schools during this period, and must report 
sickness or poverty to the authorities. This regulation is forti- 
fied by a child labor law which prohibits employment of children 
of school age. 

The Chinese educational system as outlined September 3, 1912, 
provides as its foundation the* ‘four-year coeducational primary 
school, called Citizens’. School since J uly 31, 1915. This school 
prepares for three alternative schools: ni cher primary school, 
with a course of three years; vocational school “A” of three 
years; and a supplementary school of two years. The higher pri- 
mary school prepares for four schoolsmiddle school, with a 
course of four years; vocational school “B”’ with a course of 
three years; supplementary school, with a course of two years; 

1 An order issued September 2, 1912, by the Minister of the Board of Educa- 
tion, translated by Mr. J. T. Hsi, from Educational Documents (Chiao Yu Pu 
Wen Tu Liao Piang), Chap. V, p. 23: art. 21-22. 

2 Iiid. 

3 Orders issued by the Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher 
Primary Schools (Chiao Yu Pu Ching Chun Kao Teng Hsiao Hsueh Hsiao Ling), 
art. 16. Translated by Mr. J. T. Hsi. 


4 An order issued by the Board of Education, September 28, 1912. Trans- 
lated by Mr. J. T. Hsi from Educational Documents (Chiao Yu Pu Ling), p. 16. 


30 The Education of Girls in China 


and normal school with a course of five years. van middle school 
prepared for college with six or seven years’ course and technical 
school with a four or five years’ course, and the higher normal 
school with a five years’ course. The lower normal school grad- 
uates may finish the higher normal in three years. The Chiao 
Pu illustrated the system as in Figure 2. 


In 1913 for the education of girls there were: 


2482 Primary Schools 100 Lower Normal Schools 
446 Higher Primary Schools 1 Higher Agricultural School 
2 Agricultural Schools 3 Higher Industrial Schools 
53 Industrial Schools 15 Higher Special Schools 
11 Special Schools 1 Higher Normal School! 


11 Middle Schools 


The college and technical schools have yet to be added in order 
to make the educational system complete for women. Doubt- 
less these will eventually be built. 

The courses of study as suggested by the Board of Education 
in 1915 comprise for the Citizens’ School: the Chinese classics, 
Chinese literature, ethics, mathematics, manual training, draw- 
ing, music, and physical training. Sewing is added to the cur- 
riculum for girls’ schools.2. ‘‘The courses in the citizens’ schools 
on ethics, classics, Chinese literature and mathematics are re- 
quired. The rest of the courses may be excused on account of 
the physical incapacity of the pupils.’’* The general aim of the 
Citizens’ School is “to train students both physically and men- 
tally with proper emphasis upon morality, because ethics is the 
foundation for citizenship. The students should also obtain.a 
foundation of that education which is essential to everyday life.’”4 

The course of study prescribed for the Higher Primary Schools 
consists of ethics, classics, language, mathematics, history, geog- 
raphy, science, agriculture, commercial courses, modern lan- 
guage, domestic science, manual training, drawing, singing and 


1 From the Annual Report of the Board of Education 1913 (Chung Hwa 
Min Kwoa Ti Er Tze Chiao Yu T’ung Chi Tu Piao). Translated by Mr. J. 
TAHse.pek, 

2 Regulations for the Citizens’ Schools (Kwoa Min Hsueh Hsiao Ling), 
issued July 31, 1915, art. 12. 

3 Tbid. Chap. III, art. 15. 

4 Tbid., art. 1. 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education 31 


physical training.! 


“The object of history is to enable children 


to comprehend the fundamental principles of the development of 
China and to prepare for citizenship. The contents of history 


NORMAL 


_—<H = ee 


3 YEARS 
PREPARATORY 
_YEAR 


NORMAL 


ee eee 


SCHOOL 


SUPPLEMENTARY 
_ SCHOOL _ 
PREPARATORY 7 
ivenk ne YEARS 


) SUPPLEMENTARY 
} _ SCHOOL, __ 


2 YEARS 


COLLEGE 


3 or4 YEARS 


ee eed 


“HIGHER 


PREPARATORY 


3 YEARS 


Sor4 YEARS 
PREPARATORY 
I_YEAR 


VOCATIONAL 


ee eee ee 


VOCATIONAL 
— SCHOO _ 


3 YEARS 


3 YEARS 


PRIMARY 


SCHOO! 


4 YEARS 


Fic. 2. Tut GoOvERNMENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM, 


should treat of the achievements of Hwang Ti,” the biographies 
of all great men, the development of civilization in the Far East, 
the changes of the forms of government and the relations of our 


1 Order issued by Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher Primary 


School, art. 2, 9. 


2 Hwang Ti (2697 B.c.) was one of the earliest traditional important rulers 
of the Empire. He invented the Chinese Calendar and his wife taught Seri- 
culture to the people. See Pott, F. L. H., A Sketch of Chinese History, p. 10. 


32 The Education of Girls in China 


country to other countries during the last one hundred years.! 

The object of geography is to teach students to know 
the surface of the earth and the conditions under which men live. 
It also teaches pupils the present conditions of their own country 
and may develop patriotism. The geographical conditions of 
their country, its climate, its capital, its commercial centers; the 
movement of the earth and its effect on man, on commerce, on 
products; the capitals of other countries, their commercial cen- 
ters and their products should be taught. The political and 
economic condition of China in relation to that of other coun- 
tries should be included. In teaching geography the teacher 
must use as a basis of comparison physical features of the locality. 
This method will arouse interest and stimulate local pride.” 

The object of science is to teach students to know the 
natural phenomena of things in relation to mankind. The 
courses should consist of botany, zodlogy, mineralogy. These 
courses should give familiarity with the appearance, names and 
functions of natural objects, and should show the relation of their 
development to human progress. The fundamental principles 
of chemistry and physics, including analysis, synthesis and con- 
struction of simple apparatus, and the principles of hygiene are 
also to be taught. In science the courses offered must be prac- 
tical. They must be related to agriculture, fishing industry, or 
domestic science. Elementary experiments shall be required.’ 
“The object of teaching agriculture is that students may know the 
principles of agriculture, that they may develop a habit of dili- 
gence, and that they may understand local conditions and possi- 
bilities in agriculture, forestry and fishing. Fertility of the soil, 
possibility of irrigation, use of fertilizers and agricultural instru- 
ments; the methods of farming, rearing silkworms, planting mul- 
berry trees, raising cattle and other domestic animals. Any 
details of the above mentioned courses may be chosen to suit the 
local needs.4 . . . The object of commercial courses is to 
teach the principles of commerce. This study should also develop 


1 Order issued by Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher Pri- 
mary Schools, Chap. I, art. 3. 

2 [bid., art. 4. 

SJ ind arti); 

4 Tbid., art. 6. 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education KB 


in students a habit of diligence and trustworthiness. Under 
commercial courses, trading, banking, transportation, insurance 
and other courses connected with commerce should be chosen so 
as to suit the local need. In teaching commercial courses, book- 
keeping should be added to Chinese language, mathematics, geog- 
raphy and science.!’ The object of teaching modern language is 
to enable students to speak and use a foreign language. : 
In choosing text-books the teacher must select those appropriate 
to the student’s age. In teaching modern language use practical 
words and in translation use pure language, such as Mandarin.* 
In teaching home administration the object is to train stu- 
dents to manage a home. Habits of economy and of cleanliness 
should be developed in them. Sewing and other fundamental 
principles of domestic science should be taught.’ 
nn The courses of study for middle school are ethics, the Chinese 

classics, modern language, history, geography, mathematics, 
natural science, physics, chemistry, civics, economics, drawing, 
manual training, music, physical education. For girls, middle 
school courses on gardening, housekeeping and sewing are to be 
added. Of the modern languages, English should be emphasized, 
and French, German or Russian, is to be studied, according to the 
location of the place.’ 

en “The Normal School curriculum includes ethics, classics, educa- 
tion n (psychology, ‘logic, philosophy, history of education, educa- 
tional administration, practice teaching), Chinese literature, 
penmanship, modern language, history, geography, mathematics, 
(arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, bookkeeping, 
methods of teaching), natural science (botany, zodlogy, psychol- 
ogy, mineralogy, geology, methods of teaching), physics, chemis- 
try, political science, drawing, manual training, domestic science 
and gardening, sewing, music and physical education. Although 
they are given comparatively few hours in the course of study, 
the domestic science courses, especially in the normal schools, are 
considered of highest importance. Mr. Tang Hwa Lung, Minis- goes 


BAM AORN AETI TC AABSS AE: a8 RSM CNALY gis THRE RMRANONREION ESR IG Al? 


_eenigntte 
ge ai 


1QOrder issued by Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher Pri- 
mary Schools, art. 7. 

2 Tbid., art. 8. 

3 [bid., art. 9. 

4 Orders for Middle Schools given by the Board of Education, December 2, 
1912 (Chung Hsueh Hsiao Ling), art. 1. Translated by Mr. J. T. Hsi. 


34 The Education of Girls in China 


ter of Education in 1914, writes: ““We should study how to de- 
velop intellect and skill (in our school girls). Otherwise, it will be 


impossible for China to have a footing in the world of eiviliza-~ 


tion.”?} However, “the policy of the Board is to make women 
good wives and mothers.”’ In 1916, Mr. Chiang Han Chi, presi- 
dent of the Girls’ Normal School in Hanchow, wrote: ‘The 
(conservative) conception of girls’ education is responsible for 


our non-progress. . . . The girls in the normal schools 
should have some domestic education, but they cannot be ab- 
sorbed in it. . . . Nevertheless ... . we must have 


good mothers and good housewives.’’? In the domestic science 
department of Normal School Number I of Kiangsu Province, a 
practice home of three rooms, appropriately equipped, is used for 
experiment. Every month three pupils above the third year 
class make it their home. With the permission of the parents 
they adopt a child from the elementary school to live with them. 
They change the arrangement of the furniture frequently and 
cook the suppers themselves. In the cookery department of the 
school sixteen girls participate daily, alternating the tasks. Two 
girls make the menus for the day, and these are systematically 
followed.’ 

The growth of the number of girls in school since 1904 can be 
readily shown from the following table: 
In 1904, 25 schools, 468 pupils 

1905, 71 schools, 1,665 pupils 

1906, 233 schools, 5,945 pupils 

1907, 391 schools, 11,936 pupils‘ 

1908, 513 schools, 18,202 pupils 

1909, 722 schools, 26,465 pupils 

1910-11, no reports. Many schools closed because of the Revolution. 

1912, 2,389 schools, 141,130 pupils® 

1913, 3,123 schools, 166,964 pupils® 

1917, 3,533 schools, 170,789 pupils? 


1 Chinese Educational Review, 1914. Translated by T. H. Cheng. 

* The Chinese Weekly, 1916. Translated by T. H. Cheng. 

* Chinese Educational Review, 1916, Vol. VIII; No. VI. ‘Translated by 
T. H. Cheng. 

‘* The year girls’ schools were made an integral part of the system. 

* Statistics of the Department of Education of China, 1912 (Chung Hwa 
Min Kwoa Ti Tse Chiao Yu Tung Chi Tu Piao), p. 1. 

(Notes * and 7 on page 35). 


The Modern Movement in Women’s Education 35 


RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MIssION, PRIVATE AND GOVERNMENT 
SCHOOLS 


_Mission schools were the pioneers in the field of modern educa- 
tion and are to-day rendering great service in all departments of 
school work. Private schools represented the first efforts of the 
Chinese people to provide for themselves the new type of schools, 
and are to-day a strong factor in educational progress. The 
government schools, established in 1907, have accepted the new 
education from the West and have grown much more rapidly 
than either mission or private schools. To-day, after only 
eleven years of existence, they comprise the largest educational 
system in China. 

The government educational authorities, however, exercise no 
cramping control over either private or mission schools. The 
private schools may sustain three relationships to the govern- 
ment. If they receive no funds, they may be absolutely inde- 
pendent from all control and inspection (although periodical 
reports to the government authorities are required). If sub- 
sidies from the government are received, in addition to reports 
they are inspected periodically by officials and are required to 
maintain a certain standard of work. If there are no government 
schools near, private schools may be delegated by the govern- 
ment to provide education for children in the immediate vicinity, 
and are thus incorporated into the government system. 

The relation of the mission schools to the government system 
is still undetermined. The mission schools are given full freedom 
to extend education and courtesies are continually exchanged 
between government and. mission. institutions... Officials and 
leaders in national affairs contribute, as individuals, to mission 
school support and educate their daughters in mission schools. 
Perhaps some mission centers report statistics of attendance to 
the provincial educational authorities, but it is not universally 
done. Recently provincial commissioners have been instructed 
‘“‘to report on all the schools established by foreigners in their 


8 Statistics of the Department of Education of China, 1913. 

7 From a private report sent to the writer from the Minister of Education 
of China, March 5, 1918. The Minister says in part, ‘“‘Though it (the table) 
is made on the basis of recent statistics it is not quite accurate because many 
provincial girls’ schools have not yet been reported to the Board of Education.” 


36 The Education of Girls in China 


respective provinces.”! No official recognition, however, has 
yet been accorded to the missionary educational systems, al- 
though a basis of recognition which will leave freedom for change 
and experiment, worked out through conference with the Chris- 
tian educational associations, would probably be welcomed. 
Such recognition would make possible national organization of 
plans for education which would eliminate competition and would 
thus utilize all available forces for the rapid promotion of educa- 
tion. It is apparent that only united concentrated effort can 
bring any adequate opportunity for education to this generation 
of Chinese girlhood. Big 


1 The Educational Review, July, 1918, p. 269. 


CHAPTER III 
THE PRESENT SITUATION 


THe Rapip Risk or GIRLS’ SCHOOLS 


The outstanding feature in the education of women to-day is 
the rapid rise in the number of students. The growth began in 
1877 during the period of missionary education, before the 
government permitted schools for women. This growth was 
contemporaneous with the first educational mission to America.! 
The numbers increased gradually until 1896. The Boxer out- 
break of 1900 had no permanent detrimental effect on the enroll- 
ment in mission schools although there are no statistical reports for 
girls’ schools until 1908. The agitation for reform and govern- 
mental encouragement from 1902-1907 resulted in the establish- 
ment of Chinese private, municipal and government institutions. 
The enrollment in these, together with that in missions schools, in- 
ceased steadily until the Revolution in 1910-11 made it necessary 
to suspend work in Chinese schools in many places. However, 
the most remarkable increase of the entire movement took place 
in 1912. The mission report of 1915 and the partial government 
report of 1917 indicate that the numbers continue to grow. The 
following table shows the statistical increase for all China, 1849- 
1915, mission schools only :? 

In 1849, less than, 50 pupils 

1860, 196 pupils 

1869, 556 pupils 

1877, 524 pupils 

1896, 6,358 pupils 

1909, Government and 

1910, Mission, 42,655 pupils? 

1916, Mission and 

1917, Government, 220,705 pupils! 


1 Kuo, P. W., Chinese System of Education, p. 68. 

2It has been possible to find records of the number of girls in school in 
Catholic Missions for the year 1912 only. Hence they are not included in this: 
table. 

3In 1909 was printed the last available report before the suspension of 
government schools during the Revolution. In 1910 was printed the first 
report of Mission Schools for girls after the Boxer Rebellion. 


4 These reports are the latest ones which are available. 
37 


38 The Education of Girls in China 


ELIMINATION IN THE SCHOOLS AS A WHOLE 


The great majority of the girls in school in China attend the 
lower elementary schools: 170,057 are in the lower primary or 


220,000 


200,000 


180,000 


160,000 


140,000 


120,000 


100,000 


60,000 


60,000 


40,000 


o Qa 

o3 2 2 s 
ao @ Ce @ 
rtew - ba 4 


ao ne o wi o mo 2 © ao 
we = @& a re mo ° o oan 
Oo Qa © ) 2 oOo a ro Oc 
ott aA et A et «4 ac 4 ot rie 


Fic. 3. Tse Rise or GIRbs’ SCHOOLS. 


The Present Situation 39 


citizens’ schools; 27,909 are in higher primary schools,! and 14,909 
in middle schools. 


Lower Elementary Mission? Government? Total 
Lower Elementary or Special Schools..... 40,905 133,509 174,414 
Magner eaementary 660. Pca neal 6,889 21,655 28,544 
Middle or above Normal School........... 2,122 11,638 13,760 


Over 80 per cent of the girls who enter school are in the lower 
elementary school, 13 per cent in the higher elementary school, 
and 6 per cent in the middle school. This indicates that eight out 
of ten girls who have enrolled in schools are in their first four years 
of study,‘ and that 6 per cent only have remained for seven years 
of study. When curricula are to be considered, this fact is of 
vital significance. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 


The universal tendency of schools to center in the large cities 
and to neglect country districts is evident in China. The coast 
provinces are comparatively well provided with schools while the 
inland provinces have only a scattering few. A notable exception 
to this rule, however, is Szechuen, which leads the entire nation in 
the number of government schools and ranks third in the number 
of Protestant mission schools for girls. It was impossible to 
secure information concerning the location of government schools 
for girls, but the map of the location of Protestant mission 
schools for girls shows the general distribution (see frontispiece). 

The number of girls’ schools in each province is made clear in 
the following table: 


Mission Government 
Province Schools Schools® Total 
Anhwei 85 25 110 
Chekiang 182 ’ 249 431 


1 China Mission Year Book, 1917, statistics for 1916. 

This includes only Protestant missions. Catholic statistics are not 
available. 

3 Annual Report of the Board of Education. 

4 This high percentage may be partially explained by the growth in the 
number of girls in schools, since, of course, all girls must begin in the lower 
elementary grades. 

5 Committee on Education of the Edinburgh Commission on Education. 

6 Report of Minister of Education, 1913, p. 1. 

4 


40 The Education of Girls in China 


Mission Government 
Province Schools Schools Total 

Chili 141 324 465 
Peking 68 

Fukien 650 19 669 
Honan 73 83 156 
Hunan 88 131 219 
Hupeh 236 194 430 
Kansu 10 9 19 
Kiangsi 46 69 115 
Kiangsu 244 263 507 
Kwangsi 20 64 84 
Kweichow 20 114 139 
Kwangtung 481 51 532 
Shansi 84 259 343 
Shangtung 780 197 977 
Shensi 24 68 92 
Szechuen 474 340 816 
Yunnan 54 252 306 


The coast provinces of Chili, Shangtung, Kiangsu, Chekiang, 
Fukien and Kwangtung aggregate 3,581 schools. The central 
provinces, bordering on the trade routes: The Yantze River and 
the railroads; Szechuen, Hupeh, Hunan, Kiangsi, Anhwei, and 
Honan, aggregate 1,845 schools. The inland provinces of 
Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangsi, Kansu, Shensi and Shansi report 
only 983 schools for girls. Thus, as a rule, trade and schools 
have developed together, leaving as yet untouched, great geo- 
graphical sections of the country. The comparatively strong 
hold of tradition upon those who live in country districts, the 
large percentage of rural population, and the primitive methods of 
transportation accentuate the difficulty of this problem. 


NUMBER OF GIRLS IN SCHOOL COMPARED WITH TOTAL 
NUMBER OF GIRLS OF ScHOOL AGE 


In 1910, the Ministry of the Interior (Minchengpu) reported to 
the United States Department of State a population of 331,188,- 
000.1 In Some Problems in Administration, Dr. G. D. Strayer 
places the proportion of school children to the total population of 
the United States at 17.4 per cent. Assuming that the same 
proportion will be approximately correct for China, there are 


1 See Bashford, J. W., loc. cit., p. 19. 


The Present Situation 41 


probably in that republic to-day about 56,626,712 children of 
school age. Half of these, or 28,313,356, are probably girls. 

In 1916, Protestant missions reported 49,916 girls in school; 
in 1912 the Catholic mission reported 49,987 girls in school; in 
1918 the government reported 170,789 girls in private and govern- 
ment schools. Thus, from the latest statistics available of the 
three great branches of education, there is a total of 270,692 girls 
in school.!. The number of girls who probably do not yet attend 
school is 28,042,412. The proportion of girls not in school is 
95 per cent of the girls of school age. This is graphically shown 
as follows: 


Girls in school.... 170,789 


Girls not in school .... 28,042,412 


Fig. 4. ScHoot PorpuLaTION oF GIRLS oF ScHOOL AGE. 


It is evident, therefore, that the number of girls attending 
school in China is increasing rapidly and that the schools are 
clustered in the great cities along trade routes. Probably not 
one out of one hundred girls of school age enters an educational 
institution, and four-fifths of those who do enter are registered 
in the first three years of the course. Over twenty-eight million 
girls of school age do not yet attend school. Education for girls 
in China has, in reality, barely commenced. 


1 Statistics for boys’ schools from the same sources at the same times are: 


Catholic missions........ 82,863 (Zeitschrift fiir Missions-Wissenschaft, 
1912) 
Government missions.... 3,476,242 (Government Report, 1913) 


Protestant missions ..... 117,483 (Mission Year Book, 1917) 


Estimated total number of 
boysinschool......... 3,676,588 


PART II 
CHAPTER I 
THE SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION 


In order to study the actual status and the practical results of 
the present education of women in China, questionnaires were 
sent to eighteen widely distributed centers. Fourteen of these 
were under mission control, and four under governmental con- 
trol. The questionnaires were prepared for individual replies, 
and hence were necessarily in the Chinese language. A separate 
list of questions was formulated for each of the following groups: 
pupils, teachers, graduates, and non-educated women. The 
questionnaire for pupils, translated into English, is printed be- 
low. Upon the replies to this alone, the conclusions of this 
research are based. 


QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PUPILS 
Name of school: 


Location (province, county, city): 
Name of pupil: 
Year and month of birth: 


Age: 
Place of birth: 


How many months have you studied at this school? 
What year of study is this? Please state clearly the year of lower primary, 
higher primary or middle school. 
Do you live at home or at school? 
Do you go home every week? 
Do you expect to graduate or not? 
How many years and months do you have yet in school before you graduate? 
After you have finished school, what work do you expect to do? 
Married or single? 
Husband’s occupation: 
Father’s occupation: 
Father’s yearly income: 
Number of brothers and sisters: 
Number of brothers and sisters in school: 
42 


The Scope of the Investigation 43 


What relatives have studied in China? 
What relatives have studied abroad? 
~ What intimate friends have studied in China? 
What intimate friends have studied abroad? 
Chart I. Daily schedule of studies. 
Chart II. Schools previously attended. 
Names. 
Locations. 
Months in each. 
Chart III. Subjects studied previously. 
Number of months’ study in each. 
Number of recitations per week. 
~Chart IV. What did you do last Saturday? 
What did you do your last day at home? 


Of 3000 pupil questionnaires sent out, 1176 answers, or 39.2 
per cent, have been returned. The centers from which informa- 
tion was received are: 


Pupil Pie 
. . tionnatres 
Questionnaire Ese en tals 
Chili Province Changli Alderman School 85 
(North China) Peking Gamewell School 2 
Tientsin Anglo-Chinese School 9 96 
Fukien Province . Foochow Foochow Girls’ School 44 
Hwa Nan School 35 
Tao Hsu School 32 
Yu Ying School 30 141 
Kiangsi Province Kiukiang Rulison School 98 98 
(Central China) 
Kiangsu Province Shanghai Bridgeman School 82 
Chisiu School (Chinese 
Private) 21 
McTyeire School 205 
West Gate School 
(Chinese Private) 47 
Nanking Christian School 43 
Gov’t Higher Primary 
School 9 
Gov’t Normal School 15 
Methodist School 67 489 
Kwangtung Province Canton American Board School 31 
(South China) ‘Gov’t Normal School 11 
True Light Seminary 101 
Union Normal School 12 155 
Shantung Province Hwai Yuan Presbyterian School 48 48 
(North China) 
Szechuan Province Chengtu Hwa Ying School © 59 
(West China) Union Normal 
School 16 
Chungking Shu Te School 36 
Suining Hwa Ying School 18 
Tungchuanfu Friend School 20 149 


Grand Total 1176 


44 The Education of Girls in China 


The answers to the pupil questionnaire have been received 
from every part of China, North, South, Central, West, and East. 
Twenty-six institutions are represented: 3 schools in Chili 
Province with 96 answers; 4 in Fukien Province with 141 an- 
swers; 1 in Kiangsi Province with 98 answers; 8 in Kiangsu 
Province with 489 answers; 4 in Kwangtung Province with 155 
answers; 1 in Shantung Province with 48 answers; and 5 in 
Szechuan Province with 149 answers. Of the 26 institutions 21 
are mission, 3 are government, and 2 are Chinese private schools. 
The last mentioned have been included although it is realized 
that general conclusions with regard to this group cannot be 
based on the returns from so small a number.! 

All of the institutions from which adequate data were received 
are boarding schools. Day pupils from the immediate vicinity, 
however, usually attend. The majority of these institutions are 
higher primary and middle schools, with a preparatory lower 
primary department. Scholars who have attended or have grad- 
uated from other lower schools enter the higher primary and mid- 
dle schools and thus the enrollment is increased. Hence it be- 
comes apparent at the outset that we are studying a highly 
selected group, probably much superior to the group in the aver- 
age lower primary schools.2. The investigation does reveal, 
however, present tendencies in the elementary and secondary 
education of women in China. 


1 It is interesting to note, however, that brief comparisons of the individ- 
ual government and private institutions with the general results found in this 
study do not show a wide variation. 

2 Cf. Part I, Chap. ITI, “Elimination in the School as a Whole.” 


CHAPTER II 


THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND ASPIRATIONS OF 
THE CHINESE SCHOOLGIRL 


SocIAL STATUS 


The traditional social divisions of Chinese society are: (1) 
Scholars, who include officials and the majority of the educated 
classes; (2) Farmers; (3) Artisans; (4) Merchants; and (5) 
Military Men and Servants. In the present changing order of 
society, these classes, which have never been separated by rigid 
lines, have become even less defined. Modern business pursuits 
and the professions are factors in society. The merchant and 
military groups have progressed more rapidly than the artisan 
and farmer classes. However, even to-day occupations fall 
naturally into these five classes, and with minor adaptations this 
grouping has been followed in this study. The professional men, 
and those who are engaged in work requiring higher education, 
are classified as scholars; the merchant class includes business 
men as well as those who are reported as merchants, and the fifth 
class mentioned above has been subdivided. 

In view of these relatively important class divisions, it is 
desirable to learn whether or not the schoolgirl population, which 
is extremely small in number, comes from highly selected social 
groups. The report of the father’s occupation was asked in each 
of the 1176 pupil questionnaires from the twenty-five schools. 
With the exception of a single institution in Shanghai, every school 
which sent answers to the questionnaire is represented in the 
returns. From the total number of 936 answers received, 2 
which reported fathers in a foreign country but which did not 
state their occupation, 23 which reported fathers retired from 
active business, and 146 which reported fathers deceased are 
eliminated. Of the 765 remaining, 294, or 38.5 per cent, belong 
to the scholar class; 59, or 7.7 per cent, to the farmer; 11, or 1.4 
per cent, to the artisan; 379, or 49.5 per cent, to the merchant; 
21, or 2.7 per cent, to the servant, and 1, or 1 per cent, to the 
military classes. 

45 


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The Social Environment of the Chinese Schoolgirl 4p 2 HL 


It is encouraging to note that the range of occupations included 
all grades of the social scale. Evidently no class as a class has 
failed to be reached by these schools. On the other hand, 88 per 
cent of the pupils come from the scholar and merchant classes. 
Nearly nine-tenths of the girls reporting belong to these groups, 
which probably comprise a relatively small proportion of the 
entire population of China.! This is especially significant in 
that it points to a probable selection of the fathers of the girls 
who attend school from the standpoint of general intelligence. 

It has been customary in China for every family of the lower 
classes to set apart one of its members, usually the brightest one, 
for the scholar-representative, and all the others have worked to 
make him successful. This conscious selection through many 
generations may have produced a distinct superior-intelligence 
group. Probably the same selection, although less consciously 
brought about, has taken place among the business class. As the 
old traditional bonds of duty to the father’s occupation have been 
broken, the keenly intellectual men have probably taken the lead 
and reconstructed business along progressive lines. The natural 
intellectual superiority of the average schoolgirl whose father has 
evidently more than ordinary ability is as yet unsupported by 
scientific investigation. But whether or not intellectual selec- 
tion has taken place in the business and professional classes,’ 
it is apparent from the data that the members of these groups are 
people of broad experience and progressive philosophies, who 
recognize the necessity of education for women. 

The agricultural population of the nation is probably much 
larger than that of the professional class, and perhaps larger than 
that of the business class.2 The daughters of the agricultural 
population are evidently little influenced by the schools, while 
those of the laboring and artisan classes are almost untouched. 
It seems likely that the fathers engaged in these occupations 
are often uneducated and traditional in their thinking. * The need 


11t is impossible to state accurate comparisons on account of the lack of 
census reports. 

2 The probability of such selection would seem to follow the conclusions of 
Terman. See Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, p. 96. 

8 This statement is unsupported by census returns. However, it has been so 
estimated by students of China. See King, F. H., Farmers of Forty Centuries, 
p. 4. 


4h 


48 The Education of Girls in China 


and possibility for the education of their daughters has not been 
recognized by them. Further, social usages in the village com- 
munity are often more rigid and more difficult to waive than in 
larger centers, and the daughter herself may hesitate to depart 
from popular custom. Again, there are few good schools in the 
country so that the country village girl must leave home if she 
would obtain even the most meagre education.! 

The problem of the untouched classes is one of the greatest in 
Chinese education to-day. If the womanhood of China is to be 
educated, the girls whose fathers are farmers, laborers, and arti- 
sans must be reached. They have evidently been neglected and 
only conscious effort and propaganda directed to these classes by 
educators will make schooling possible for them. 


ECONOMIC STATUS 


The request for the report of the fathers’ salaries was answered 
by very few of the pupils. Two hundred and twenty out of the 
1176 reported both occupation and salary of their fathers. 
Nevertheless, from these few, some indications of the economic 
situation of the students may be found. The range of salary 
income is very great; from below $100 Mexican? per year to 
$50,000. However, the median salary falls just above $500. 
The median salary of three educators is just above $400; of five 
religious workers, $100—-$199; of twenty-six officials, $1000; 
of thirty-five business men, about $500; of forty-six merchants, 
$1000-$1499. The median income of the three farmers reported 
is $100; that of the printer and the ten servants, $100. 

The religious workers and the farmers seem to receive about 
equal salaries, but it may be that in the mission schools (where 
most of the daughters of religious workers attend) pastors’ 
daughters receive certain perquisites. The meagre data at hand 
seem to indicate that economic and social cleavages follow approx- 
imately the same division lines. If the indications of the data 
may be taken as suggestive of a more widespread condition,’ 


1Cf. Part II, Chap. III. 

2 The Mexican dollar is worth about 50 cents gold in normal money markets. 
This standard is used uniformly throughout this study. 

This seems probable from the observation of students of China. Cf. 
Ross, E. A., The Changing Chinese, pp. 103-5, p. 338; Bashford, J. W., China, 
An Interpretation, pp. 49-52. 


The Social Environment of the Chinese Schoolgirl 49 


the question of providing adequate free educational facilities in 
communities where the economic status permits only the barest 
necessities of life, with probably insufficient food and clothing to 
supply the demands of health, is one that confronts the educator 
of Chinese girls to-day. Western standards of social necessities 
must be abandoned, and a new system of schoolgirl support 
worked out for China, whereby the girl of the poorer classes will 
be enabled to study, and at the same time not be too heavy a bur- 
den to her family. Probably the economic standards of life 
will be raised rapidly in the next decade. But at the present 
time, and during the period of change, careful experimentation 


DETAILED TABULATION OF OCCUPATIONS OF FATHERS WITH SALARIES 


BELOW $1000 
Under|$100!} 200 
$99 to | to | 300} 400 | 500 | 600 | 700 | 800 | 900 | Total 
199 | 299 

Scholar Class: 

Educators 2 8 4 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 24. 

Nurses 

Officials 1 3 1 1 3 4 1B) 

Physicians 1 1 2 

Religious Workers 13 19 8 4 3 1 2 50 
The Artisan Class: 

Printers 2 2, 

Tanners 1 1 
The Farmer Class: 

Farmers 1 1 1 3 
The Merchant Class: 

General Business 5) 4 3 1 2 2 17 

Merchants 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 14 
The Servant Class: 

Servants 5 1 4 10 
Grand Total 30 37 | 24 6 9 9 2 4 74 8 | 136 


and thoughtful effort will be needed to extend to the girl of 
the lower economic classes the privilege of an education to which 
she has a right. The problem of self support for these girls who 
ought to be in school while conditions are changing, is one of the 
outstanding problems for educational administrators. 


HoMeE RELATIONSHIPS 


Usually the girls’ schools above the lower primary school are 
boarding schools. In order to learn the extent to which the 
girls are separated from life in the home, the questions ‘‘Do you 
live at home or at school?”’ and ‘‘Do you go home every week?”’ 


50 The Education of Girls in China 


were asked, and 1084 answers were received. Of the girls who 
replied, 183, or 16.8 per cent, live at home; 21, or 1.9 per cent, live 
with relatives; and 880, or 81.1 per cent, live in the dormitories. 


OCCUPATIONS AND 


500 | 1000) 1500]2000}2500}3000}3500/4000/ 4500] 5000 
$499 | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to |} to 
999 |1499) 1999) 2499] 2999/3499] 3999|4499/4999/ 5499 


Scholar Class: 
Educators 17 7 3 3} 2 
Engineers 
Lawyers 
Literary Men 
Nurses 
Officials 5 8 3 4 1 
Physicians 
Religious Workers 47 
Students 


to 
= 
to 


Farmer Class: 
Farmers 3 


Artisan Class: 
Carpenters 
Printers 
Skilled Workmen 
Tanners 


e bo 


Merchant Class: 
General Business Men 13 
Merchants 8 


Military Class: 
Military Men 1 


ont 
oo 
toto 
to bo 
on 


Servant Class: 
Servants 10 


Totals 106 30272 7 vf 9 5 6 1 2 


Of those living at the school, 163, or 15 per cent, go home every 
week; 98, or 9 per cent, go home every month; 19, or 1.7 
per cent, go home sometimes, and 595, or 54.9 per cent, do 
not go home.! We may thus infer that more than half 
of the schoolgirls are away from their homes for the entire 
school year, except perhaps for brief between-semester visits. 
It will be seen from the following tables that the majority of the 
girls live athome for the first and second years in the lower primary 
school. But from the third year lower primary until they leave 
school the greater number live in school dormitories. 

The separation of more than one half of the schoolgirls of 
China from their homes during the period of education is of grave 
import. At best the girls will acquire habits of thought and 


1 Five left the answers to visits home blank. 


The Social Environment of the Chinese Schoolgirl 51 


action different from those people in the home who have little 
or no education,! and unless the contacts are sufficiently close 
to keep a common sympathy, there must be a strong tendency for 


SALARIES OF FATHERS 


5500 | 6000) 6500/7000] 7500) 8000} 8500/9000] 9500 

to to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | 10000} 19000 | 20000 | 30000 | 50000 | Total 
5999 |6499|6900|7499/7999| 8499/8999 /|9499 | 9999 

1 33 

1 1 

1 1 

2 2 1 26 

2 10 

51 

3 

2 

1 

35 

5 1 2 1 1 46 

1 

10 

5 2 3 6 1 1 1 1 220 


the girls to become isolated from their homes and communities. 
The traditional idea of education separated from life, and the 
externally imposed Western education serve to accentuate the 
tendency. It is very possible that one reason why the daughters 
of the lower social and economic classes are not sent to school 
is because the families fear estrangement. Thus, if education is 
to be a growth for the girls in school, and at the same time to be an 
integral service to society, educators will need to guard against 
desocializaion of the girls while in school, and to direct their 
attention to the strengthening of the bonds between the school 
and home community life.” 


1The large proportion of women in the homes to-day, even among pro- 
fessional and business classes, are uneducated. Education thus tends to 
separate girls from their mothers. 

2 See discussion under Curriculum. 


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54 The Education of Girls in China 


AMBITIONS 


In order to learn what place the girl herself desired to fill in 
society, the question ‘‘ After you have finished school, what work 
do you expect to do?” was asked. That this group of school- 
girls is selected by ambition for intellectual pursuits seems very 
evident from the 992 direct replies received to this question. 
In fact, their ambition for study doubtless has been a large factor 
in their entrance to and continuation in school. Six hundred 
and sixty-one out of the total number expect to become students in 
higher institutions; teachers, evangelists, physicians, musicians, 
social workers, business women, and nurses. The four ranking 
highest in popularity are distributed as follows: 303 desire to 
teach, 227 hope for further study, 66 plan to study medicine, 40 
plan to become evangelists, and 296 are uncertain. Only one 
states that she desires home life. About one half show no 
definite recognition of social relationship in their ambition (i.e., 
“‘students’”’ and “‘uncertain’’), the other half state purposes of 
distinct service to society, i.e., those who intend to enter the work 
of teaching, medicine, evangelism, and social work. 

The limited number of occupations chosen by the girls is prob- 
ably due to the fact that very few occupations are as yet open to 
women. The stated purpose, however, of so large a number who 
plan to become teachers is relatively significant. With the rapid 
increase in the number of schools, which will doubtless take place 
within the next decade, there will be a great need for trained 
teachers. Probably many of the girls who hope to continue 
study, expect to teach when graduated. The choice of five of the 
girls for business, and of three of the girls for social work, shows 
that these fields will probably be developed for women in the near 
future. Although only one girl definitely stated her desire for 
home life, doubtless the majority of the girls will eventually enter 
homes of their own. 

It is apparent that although these schoolgirls have expressed 
their ambitions to enter these vocations, this fact cannot be taken 
as proof that they willdoso. Nevertheless, the report does show 
the general lines along which they will desire training. The 
schools will need to recognize these factors in shaping their 
curricula to meet social needs. ‘To select each study so that it 
may contribute both to the needs of society and to the desires of 
the individual, is an immediate need of education in China today. 


CHAPTER III 
THE CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS 


AGE-DISTRIBUTION 


The comparison of age with grade has been a very difficult 
undertaking. Although the question was specific in Chinese, 
literally, ‘‘What year of study is this? (state clearly the year of 
the lower primary, higher primary, or middle school)” the an- 
swers varied greatly. Unfortunately, many of the mission schools 
do not follow the general nomenclature of the government, and 
thus ‘‘high school’’! might mean higher primary or (following the 
American nomenclature, literally translated) middle school. It 
may be that in some cases ‘‘middle school”’ is used as a term for 
higher primary school, although this does not seem likely. In 
one institution, ‘‘ preparatory school,’’ probably a term for middle 
school is reported. It may be, also, that some of the girls do not 
know in which grade to consider themselves. In every case, 
however, the translation has been as exact as possible, and every 
girl whose grade was doubtful is classed ‘‘special.’’ 

The questions regarding age and grade were answered in a more 
or less accurate way by all of the 1176 pupils; of these, however, 
6 failed to give their ages, and 216 were unable to give their grades 
clearly. Of the 1176, 239 are in the lower primary school, 234 in 
the higher primary school, 267 in the middle school,’ 54 in the 
preparatory school, 103 in the high school, and 63 in the normal 
school. The table on page 56 shows the age-grade distribution 
in the twenty-six schools of the study. 

The legal school entrance age of a Chinese child is 6; thus the 
youngest of the 1170 girls reporting ages in the questionnaires is 6 
years old. The oldest is 34. Only six of the 115 girls in the first 
grade lower primary are 6 years old; only three are 7 years old. 


1In the third year of high school the age range was from 10 to 20 years 
in but 44 cases. The only possible explanation seems to be a misunder- 
standing as to the meaning of the question. 

2 The reason for the large number of pupils in the higher grades is that 
boarding-schools tend to become institutions to which graduates of smaller 
schools come for more advanced study. 

5 55 


The Education of Girls in China 


56 


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The Classification of Pupils 57 


The median age of the girls in the first year of school is 9.83 years 
+ 434 P.E. (4.5 P.E.—1.953). 

The median entrance age of the girls in the second year of school 
is 11.92 years + .323 (4.5 P.E.—1.453). In the third year 
lower primary, the median age is 13.44 years + .376 P.E. (4.5 
P.E. — 1.692). Thus the median age of the girls in their first 
year of school is 9.83 years, or almost four years above the legal 
entrance age. After one year of school work, the median age 
is 11.92 years, almost six years above the legal entrance age, 
and fully two years above the median age of the first year. The 
median age of the third year of school is 13.44 years, nearly seven 
and one-half years above the legal entrance age, and fully one and 
one-half years above the median age of the second year. The 
median age of the fourth lower primary is 15.3 years + .18 P.E. 
(4.5 P.E.— .824), over nine years above the legal entrance age, 
and over one and one-half years above the median age of the third 
year. 

In the higher primary school, the median age of the girls in the 
first grade is 15.92 years + .594 P.E. (4.5 P.E. — 2.671); of those 
in the second, 16.31 years = .169 (4.5 P.E. — 1.87); and of those 
in the third, 18. 64 years + .304 (4.5 P.E. — 1.37). 

The median ages of the middle school are: 17.49 years = .17 
P.E. (4.5 P.E. — .81); 18.73 years = .3 P.E. (4.5 P.E. — 1.35); 
18.88 years = .344 P.E. (4.5 P.E. — 1.55); and 20.54 years + .224 
(4.5 P.E. — .1). Those of the preparatory school are: 15.42 + 
.398 (4.5 P.E. — 1.79), 15.78 = .458 (4.5 P.E.— 2.06), 17 + .475 
(4.5 P.E. — 2.14), and 16.5 = .378 (4.5 P.E. — 1.71) for each suc- 
cessive year. 

The median ages of the high school are: 16.17 + .513 P.E. 
(4 bn Pi He eo Lh) piliie = 41) (4.5) PUR 86), TTD 27 
(4.5 P.E. — 1.21), 17.79 = .3828 (4.5 P.E. — 1.48). The median 
age of the preparatory normal group is 18.25 + .42 (4.5 P.E. — 
1.89); of the first year normal, 19 + .985 (4.5 P.E. — 4.48); 
of the second year normal, 20.4 + .41 P.E. (4.5 P.E. — 1.83); of 
the third year normal, 19 + .53 (4.5 P.E. — 2.43); of the special 
group, 17.19 + .169 (4.5 P.E. — .76). 

The median age of the total group is 16.39 years + .08 (4.5 P.E. 
— .36). 

The 25 percentile is at 14.9 years and the 75 percentile at 18.8 
years. That is, 50 per cent of the pupils are between 14.9 years 


58 The Education of Girls in China 


and 18.8 yearsold. The table shows that dropping out of schools 
does not appear to be a serious factor until the age of eighteen. 
Thus it seems probable that the actual school period of the 
Chinese boarding-school girl is from about ten until nineteen 
years of age. 

The data show conclusively that the entrance age of the 
majority of Chinese girls is from three to seven years higher than 
the legal entrance age. This is probably due to the traditional 
hesitancy in allowing girls to study. It is also probably due to 
the fact that girls who are away from the centers have no schools 
near and so must attend boarding schools, and parents dislike to 
send the girls away from home too young. Although the Chinese 
girl learns much from life in the home, and obtains a close sym- 
pathy with the traditions of family life, yet four, and often more, 
of the most valuable educational years are allowed to pass, and 
the tools of education, reading and writing, are not mastered until 
comparatively late. 

The fact that the median age is more than one year later in 
each successive grade in the lower primary school may be ex- 
plained in three ways. It is possible that because of the rapid 
increase of the popularity of girls’ schools during the last few years, 
the median school entrance age of each year has been earlier. 
Again, older girls, entering the second, third, and fourth grades 
from outside institutions may materially add to the median age of 
these years. Or, it may be that progress is slow, and that for 
many pupils time is lost through non-promotion. A study of one 
group from year to year would reveal the rate of progress. Ac- 
curate school promotion records will give the data required. 
Such a study is necessary before the actual waste of time in school 
may be ascertained. 

The data also show that these girls do not leave school at 
fourteen years of age, but remain for eight or nine consecutive 
years. There are several reasons why these girls are permitted 
to continue their study uninterrupted. In the first place, the 
schoolgirls of the higher primary and middle schools are a selected 
group, from the homes of the educated classes. Their families 
expect them to remain in school. Again, the number of girls 
in China who are in school, when compared with the total popula- 
tion of girls of school age, is very small, and those in school ap- 
preciate the privilege of learning to read. They therefore apply 


The Classification of Pupils 59 


themselves earnestly to study. In addition to this, the industrial 
and commercial worlds are not yet open to women, and do not 
offer an immediate opportunity for self-support. The limited 
number of callings open to women necessitates preparation in 
school. At the same time, government and mission scholarships 
make it possible for the schoolgirl to remain at school with a 
minimum cost to her parents. Moreover, the educated girl does 
not marry before she is 17 or 18 years of age. As a result, she 


LOWER PRIMARY SCHOOL 


lst Year 
8 29 
2nd Year 
1 46 
CPE IE 
ord year 
i 30 
PORES 
4th Year 


123 


HIGHER PRIMARY SCHOOL 
lst Year ‘ 
2 


MIDDLE SCHOOL 


CI Under Age 
Normal Age 
MMi Over Age 


Fie. 5. AGg-GrapE DisTRIBuTION (BASED ON LEGAL ENTRANCE AGE). 


60 The Education of Girls in China 


may have the years from the time she is old enough to leave home, 
until her marriage, free to engage in study. 


LOWER PRIMARY SCHOOL 
lst Year 


14 7 16 


2nd Year 

7 L8 22 
CVT TTT 
3rd Year 
4 8 19 
V7 ae 
4th Year 

eur 


79 


8 9 
WT 
MIDDLE SCHOOL 
lst Year 
16 


28 vwoo 


9 26 25 
Cl Under Age 
Normal Age 
Gam Over Age 


Fic. 6. AGr-GrapE DistrisuTion (BASED ON MEDIUM ENTRANCE AGE). 


Amount OF UnpER-AGE,! NorMAL-AGE? AND OveEeR-AGE’ 


From the late school entrance age, and the slow rate of prog- 
ress, it follows that the amount of over-age present is extremely 


1 “‘Under-age’”’ is a term applied to the age of pupils in any grade of the 
school system who are younger than they would be had they entered at legal 
age and progressed one grade each year. 

(Notes ? and 3 on page 61.) 


The Classification of Pupils 61 


great. In the first grade lower primary, in spite of late entrance, 
the proportion of over-age is less than in any other grade; taking 
the legal entrance age as a basis, 24.3 per cent of the pupils are of 
normal age and 75.6 per cent are over-age. In the second grade, 
2.1 per cent are normal and 97.8 per cent are over-age. In the 
third grade, 3.2 per cent are of normal age and 96.7 per cent are 
over-age. Inthe fourth grade, .8 per cent are normal and 99.1 per 
cent are over-age. The same conditions hold for the higher 
primary school, although in the last two years the percentage of 
over-age is slightly less. In the first year of the higher primary, 
2.3 per cent are normal age and 97.6 per cent over-age; in the 
second year of the higher primary, 4.7 per cent are of normal age 
and 95.2 per cent are over-age. In the third year of the higher 
primary, 4.7 per cent are normal age and 95.2 per cent are over- 
age. The first under-age is shown in the first year of the middle 
school, and is present to some extent in each of the four years. 
In the first year of the middle school, 1.3 per cent are under-age, 
8.1 per cent are normal, and 90.5 per cent are over-age. In the 
second year, 1.0 per cent are under-age, 4.1 per cent are normal, 
and 94.8 per cent are over-age. In the third year, 10.5 per cent 
are under-age, 10.5 per cent normal, and 78.9 per cent are over- 
age. In the fourth year, 3.4 per cent are under-age, 1.7 per cent 
are normal, and 94.8 per cent over-age. 


2 “Normal-age”’ is a term applied to the age of pupils in any grade of the 
school system who are in the grade and of the age they would be had they 
entered at legal age. It is customary, however, to consider both six and seven 
as ages of normalentrance. Cf. Strayer, G. D., Some Problems in City Admin- 
istration, pp. 70, 76, 77. 

3 “Over-age’”’ is a term applied to the age of pupils in any grade of the school 
system who are older than they would be had they entered at legal age, and 
progressed one grade each year. 


The Education of Girls in China 


62 


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The Classification of Pupils 63 


PERCENTAGE OF UNDER-AGE, NORMAL-AGE AND OVER-AGE PUPILS ON. 
THE BASIS OF LEGAL ENTRANCE AGE 


Under-Age Normal-Age Over-Age 
1 Lower Primary 24.3% 75.6% 
2 Lower Primary 2.1% 97.8% 
3 Lower Primary 3.2% 96.7% 
4 Lower Primary 8% 99.1% 
1 Higher Primary 2.3% 97.6% 
2 Higher Primary 4.7% 95.2% 
3 Higher Primary 4.7% 95.2% 
1 Middle School 1.3% 8.1% 90.5% 
2 Middle School 1.0% 4.1% 94.8% 
3 Middle School 10.5% 10.5% 78.9% 
4 Middle School 3.4% LAG 94.8% 
Total 1.0% 4.7% 94.1% 


If, instead of on the basis of the legal age of school entrance, 
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taken as a basis, the amouat of over-age is as shown on page 64. 


PERCENTAGE OF UNDER-AGE, NORMAL-AGE AND OVER-AGE PUPILS ON 
THE BASIS OF MEDIAN ENTRANCE AGE 


Under-Age Normal-Age Over-Age 

1 Lower Primary 37.8% 18.9% 48.2% 
2 Lower Primary ~ 14.9% 38.2% 46.8% 
3 Lower Primary 12.9% 25.8% 61.2% 
4 Lower Primary 4.8% 31.4% 63.7% 
1 Higher Primary 9.3% 20.9% 69.7% 
2 Higher Primary 10:3% 31.1% 58.4% 
3 Higher Primary 917% 21.4% 59.5% 
1 Middle School 21.6% 37.8% 41.6% 
2 Middle School 18.5% 38.1% 43.2% 
3 Middle School 42.1% 26.3% 31.5% 
4 Middle School 15.7% 45.6% 38.6% 

Total 15.6% 31.4% 52.7% 


Here again over-age is present to a marked degree. In the 
first year lower primary, 14, or 37.8 per cent, are under-age, only 
7, or 18.9 per cent, are of normal age, and 16, or 43.2 per cent, 
are over-age. For the next four years, the degree of over-age 
grows steadily larger: 7, or 14.9 per cent, in the second year 
lower primary are under-age, 18, or 38.2 per cent, normal age, 
and 46.8 per cent over-age; in the third year lower primary, 4, or 
12.9 per cent, are under-age, 8, or 25.8 per cent, normal age, and 
61.2 per cent over-age; in the fourth year lower primary, 6, or 4.8 
per cent, are under-age, 39, or 31.4 per cent, normal age, and 79, 
or 63.7 per cent, over-age; in the first year higher primary, 8, or 


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The Classification of Pupils 65 


9.3 per cent, are under-age, 18, or 20.9 per cent, normal age, 
and 60, or 69.7 per cent, over-age. In the second year higher pri- 
mary, the fact that the eighteen or nineteen-year-old girls are 
leaving school affects the proportion of over-age. Here 11, or 
10.3 per cent, are under-age, 33, or 31.1 per cent, normal, and 
62, or 58.4 percent,over-age. Inthirdyearhigher primary, 9.7 per 
cent are under-age, 21.4 per cent normal, and 25, or 59.5 per 
cent, over-age. In the middle school in the first year, 16, or 
21.6 per cent, are under-age, 28, or 37.8 per cent, normal, and 
41.6 per cent over-age; in the second year, 18, or 18.5 per cent, 
are under-age, 37, or 38.1 per cent, normal, and 42, or 48.2 per 
cent, over-age; in the third year, 16, or 42.1 per cent, are under- 
age, 10, or 26.3 per cent, normal, and 12, or 31.5 per cent, over- 
age; in the fourth year, 9, or 15.7 per cent, are under-age, 26, 
or 45.6 per cent, normal, and 22, or 38.6 per cent, over-age. In 
the middle school, the effect of the leaving age is naturally 
very marked, since the normal age on the basis of the median age 
of the first middle grade is 18 or 19 years of age. 

Thus it is evident that even upon the basis of the four years 
late median age of the first year of school, the succeeding years of 
school contain a large number of over-age pupils. It may be con- 
cluded, therefore, that the schools at the present time are dealing 
with a group of older girls in the lower school grades, and that 
these girls will have only eight or nine consecutive years in school. 
To enable the pupils to make the best possible use of this limited 
time, each should be given tasks that challenge her best effort. 
Older pupils who will spend only one or two years in school, and 
who have learned to cook and sew at home will need a very differ- 
ent course from young pupils in the same grade, who have never 
learned the essentials of home-keeping, and who will probably re- 
main at school for ten or twelve years. Individual freedom in the 
choice of courses, especially on the part of those who are older, is 
important in all grades. Younger pupils who have proved their 
ability should be encouraged to progress rapidly through the 
system, and thus secure ample time for preparation for the pro- 
fessions. When it is found that a large proportion of the pupils 
take longer than the scheduled time to complete certain courses, 
adjustment of the courses to the ability of the girls should be 
made. This will necessitate flexible grade divisions with frequent 
promotion, special rooms for over-age and under-age pupils and a 


66 The Education of Girls in China 


wide variation of subjects.1 Adequate solutions to the various 
phases of this problem can be worked out only by conscious 
experiment and comparison of results in China. 


1 For efforts to meet similar situations in America, cf. Cubberley, E. P., 
Public School Administration, Chap. XVII-XVIII; Strayer, G. D., Some 
Problems in City School Administration, Chap. VI, VIII, XII. 


CHAPTER IV 
THE SUBJECTS IN THE CURRICULUM 


The studies reported by the girls in the schools closely follow 
the courses outlined in the government and mission curricula. 

In the First Year Lower Primary, 34 of the 37 girls reported 
weekly schedules. The subjects reported by the highest number 
of girls are: Chinese reading, by 32 of the 34 girls of that grade 
reporting; arithmetic, 30; singing, 27; English and Bible, each 26; 
geography and writing, each 23. English grammar is reported by 
4 of the girls. In addition to the 26 reporting Bible, 18 report 
moral training as a part of their weekly schedules; 18 also report 
physical training. Of the newer subjects hand-work is reported 
by 3, and stories by 1. 

The proportion of time spent on each subject is also given in the 
schedule. Whenever the periods given were irregular, or the 
time specified uncertain, the number of hours is listed under 
‘‘Not Reporting.’’ Thus the proportion of time is approximately 
accurate. Five hours per week is spent on arithmetic by 20 of 
the girls, on English by 22, on geography by 14, and on writing by 
17. Bible is studied 3 hours a week by 14. Eleven girls spend 
2 hours a week on physical training. 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—FIRST LOWER PRIMARY 


Number of Recitation il 2 3 4 1|5/617/8/]9{10} Not Re- | Total 
Periods per Week porting 

Chinese Reading 2 19 1 10 32 
Arithmetic 2 1 20 7 30 
Singing 4 9 reali a 8 27 

ible Del. 8 2 26 
English 1 22 3 26 
Geography 2 4 t 14 3 23 

riting 1 2 17 3 23 
Moral Training 13 3 1 1 18 
Physical Training 11 2 4 1 18 
Composition 1 2 1 BN) | 1 8 
Grammar 1 3 4 
Drawing 2 1 3 
Hand-work 3 3 
Botany 1 1 2 
English Writing 2 2 
History 1 1 
Music 1 1 
Stories 1 1 


Number of girls in First Lower Primary, 37; number reporting schedules, 34, 


67 


68 The Education of Girls in China 


In the Second Year Lower Primary the subjects are practically 
thesame. Singing is reported by 41 of the 45 girls; arithmetic by 
39; Chinese reading by 39; geography by 37; writing by 37; Bible 
by 36; English by 35; drawing by 29; and physical training by 
29. Three report hand-work, 2 report manual arts, and 2 report 
stories. The proportion of time is given as follows: 16 spend 3 
hours on arithmetic; 25 spend 5 hours on Bible; 14 spend 3 hours, 
and 8 spend 5 hours on Chinese reading. Sixteen spend 2 hours 
on drawing; 26 spend 5 hours on English; 18 spend 2 hours on 
geography; 14, 2 hours on grammar; 14, 2 hours on moral train- 
ing; 19, 2 hours on physical training; 28, 2 hours on singing; 
and 28, 5 hours on writing. 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—SECOND LOWER PRIMARY 


Number of Recitation il Be 3 4 5 |6] 7] 8{12)13]17] Not Re- | Total 
Periods Per Week porting 
l 1 
Singing 2} 28 1 Liles 6 41 
Arithmetic La aie) Sariigsp 2 6 39 
Chinese Reading a ed fain 3 1 8} 1 1 ] 9 39 
Geography 18 3 Silat 7 37 
Writing 1 2 2S il 5 37 
Bible 2 Be 25 | 1 6 36 
English 1 1 26 41 Dee 3 35 
Drawing 8 | 16 di 2 BY 29 
Physical Training 1 | 19 6 ibe | al 1 29 
Moral Training 2] 14 1 2 19 
Grammar 1} 14 1 1 17 
Composition 2 3 1 1 7 
Botany 1 1 ib ll 2 6 
Hand-work 1 ] 1 2 
Manual Arts 1 1 2 
Stories 1 1 2 
History ] 1 
Letter Writing ] 1 
Music é 1 1 


Number of girls in Second Lower Primary, 47; number reporting sechedules, 45. 


In the Third Year Lower Primary arithmetic, reported by 28 
of the 31 girls; Chinese reading, reported by 30; Bible, reported 
by 29; geography, reported by 25; physical training, reported by 
21; and writing, reported by 24, lead the subjects. Only 13 of 
the 31 girls report English in this grade. Hand-work and manual 
training are reported by 4, sanitation by 6, and sewing by 5. The 
proportion of time on each of these studies is given by only a 
scattering few. 

The studies of the Fourth Year Lower Primary were reported 
by 118 out of the total of 124 girls: 111 are studying Chinese 
reading; 107, arithmetic; 103, geography; 98, Bible; 75, writing; 


Subjects in the Curriculum 69 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—THIRD LOWER PRIMARY 


Number of Recitation 1 2 3 4 |516|7]8191|12| Not Re- | Total 
Periods Per Week porting 
Chinese Reading 1 1 i | 3 15 30 
Bible 6 2 1 42 1 13 29 
Arithmetic 1 8] 3] 3 13 28 
Geography 5 4 4 2 10 25 
Writing 2 2 +) (ie | 13 24 
Physical Training 2 4 1 6 8 21 
English 1 2 10 13 
Moral Training 2 3 1 5 11 
Singing i} 2 1 1 4 11 
Drawing 2 6 1 9 
History 6 1 2 9 
Sanitation 5 1 6 
Sewing 1 4 5 
Ethics 4 4 
Manual Training 3 3 
Art 2 2 
Classics ] 1 2 
Music Lien 2 
Natural Science il 1 2 
Composition 1 1 
English Writing 1 1 
Hand-work 1 1 
Mental Arithmetic 1 1 
Piano 1 1 
Number of girls in Third Lower Primary, 31; number reporting schedules, 31. 
SUBJECTS OF STUDY—FOURTH LOWER PRIMARY 
Number of Recitation 1 2 3 4 |5/6]718]9 10} Not Re- | Total 
Periods Per Week porting 
Chinese Reading 4 6 5 3/8211 5/3) 873 41 111 
Arithmetic 4 5 3 SOS WeLIeS 1 0 107 
Geography 12 | 29 4 3 118 37 103 
Bible 4} 28} 14 Te 16}e1 J 33 98 
Writing 10 | 10 6 3 |23 23 75 
English 3 2 3/126 4 34 (e. 
History Sel ca inl 2. 1 | 3 22 65 
Drawing Zio 2 12 58 
Physical Education 5 | 18 % 14 18 58 
Singing 14 | 10 7 eel 21 ty 
Grammar 4 2 248 15 34 
Composition 12} 18 1 1 32 
Moral Training 2 5 2 1 13 23 
Sewing Srl 1 6 23 
General Science 7 > 3 ive ri 21 
Ethics 11 1 2 2 3 19 
Classics 1 3 2 Pale? 1 6 16 
Sanitation 9 2 2 3 16 
Essay 7 1 1 6 15 
Letter Writing 14 1 15 
Hand-work 6 3 Ps 2 13 
Music 2 1 3 6 12 
Physics — 3 7 1 11 
Hygiene 5 5 10 
Art 3 5 8 
Recitations 1) ff 8 
Chemistry 5 5 
Foreign History 1 2 1 4 
Piano M 1 2 
Domestic Science 1 1 
Manual Training 1 1 
Mental Arithmetic 1 1 


Number of girls in First Higher Primary, 124; number reporting schedules, 118. 


70 The Education of Girls in China 


72, English; 65, history; 58, physical education; 58, drawing; 
and 57, singing; 23, sewing; 16, sanitation; 13, hand-work; 1, 
manual training; and 1, domestic science. 

Although the period schedule varies from 1 to 5 periods in most 
of the subjects, and for arithmetic, Chinese, and English from 1 
to 10 periods, usually arithmetic, Chinese reading, English and 
writing are accorded 5 recitation periods per week; Bible, draw- 
ing, geography, history, physical training, and sewing, 2 periods; 
and sanitation, domestic science and hand-work, 1 period per 
week. Twenty-three give drawing 2 periods per week; 21, 1 
period per week. 

In the First Year Higher Primary, the total number, 86, re- 
ported weekly schedules of recitation periods: 73 are studying 
arithmetic; 73, Chinese reading; 72, geography; 69, Bible; 68, 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—FIRST HIGHER PRIMARY 


Number of Recitation 1 2 3 4 5 1617]/8 9 |10)12| Not Re- | Total 
Periods Per Week porting 
Arithmetic 31 il 23 18 73 
Chinese Reading 6 Soi ela pal aed 16 73 
Geography 1 | 38 1 3 29 72 
Bible 1 6 | 30 2 6 24 69 
History 32 8 i 21 68 
English 1 1 Li 42 3 PAA 12 63 
Physical Training 33 1 i 2 14 51 
Singing 29 2 4 1 12 48 
Drawing 25 8 ti 40 
Writing 2 2 1 14 18 37 
Composition 31 B, il 1 35 
Sewing 29 5 34 
Letter Writing Bile29 il 32 
Music TP \yl3 2 4 26 
Essay 16 3 1 1 6 27 
General Science 1 i! 4 2 15 25 
Hand-work 13 1 1 1 2 18 
Art 1 2 AR Ds int 2 17 
Moral Training 3 5 8 16 
Classics 3 1 4 2 10 
Sanitation 6 2 8 
Ethics 1 6 if 
Physiology 3 1 1 1 1 7 
Mencius 1 5 6 
Mandarin 1 es 4 
Religion it 1 af 3 
Five Books 1 1 2 
Rhetoric 1 1 2 
Map Drawing 2 2 
Agriculture } 1 
Physics 1 1 


Number of girls in Second Higher Primary, 86; number reporting schedules, 86. 


history; and 63, English; 34, sewing; 18, hand-work; 8, sanitation; 
and 4, Mandarin.' Thirty-one spend 2 recitation hours per 


1'The language which is most universally spoken in China, and which will 
probably become the national language. 


Subjects in the Curriculum 71 


week on arithmetic, and 23, 5 recitation hours on Chinese reading. 
English and sanitation are practically 5-period subjects; Bible 
and geography are 3-period-per-week subjects and history, a 
2-period-per-week subject. Sewing and hand-work are reported 
as 1-period-per-week subjects. 

The total number, 106 girls, in the Second Year Higher Primary 
grade reported their weekly recitations: 102 study mathematics 
(94 arithmetic, 7 mathematics, 1 algebra); 98 study Chinese 
reading; 94, history; 90, geography; 89, English; 88 Bible; and 
63, physical training; 31, sewing; 20, sanitation; and 9, hand-work. 
The study of Mandarin is reported by 10 girls. Subjects for the 
most part given 5 periods per week are arithmetic, Chinese 
reading, and English; those given 3 periods per week are Bible, 
geography, and sanitation. Mandarin is usually given 2 periods 
per week. One girl reports sewing 2 periods per week; and 16, 1 
period. History and hand-work are reported as 1-period-per- 
week subjects. 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—SECOND HIGHER PRIMARY 


Number of Recitation 1 2 3 4 5 | 6] 7| 8} 9/10/12/13)14) Blanks | Total 
Periods Per Week 
Chinese Reading melo Sel oawie | Leal wk line it 26 98 
Arithmetic 22 5 | 49 3 15 94 
History 32 9 | 171] 14 Z 20 94 
Geography 10 | 11 | 42 5 22 90 
English 12 3 2) 49 2} 1 1 19 89 
Bible : Ti we2i7 6 | 16 28 88 
Physical Training 2) 32] 11 5 5 ily 67 
General Science PAY | 3 Seis 6 56 
Writing 8 | 14 3 2] 16] 2 9 54 
Music 19 | 15 2 1 37 
Singing 18 3 4 2 74 34 
Sewing 1Gh ie 4. 31 
Drawing 12 | 13 4 29 
Composition 10 4 Le LO 1 26 
Classics 2 5 1 1 3 1 12 25 
Essays 14 5 2 4 2 
Sanitation 1 1 3 2 13 20 
Art 5 1 3 8 2 19 
Ethics 3 3 8 2 3 19 
Moral Training 12 3 4 19 
Romanized 11 11 
Mandarin 9 1 10 
Hand-work 5 1 1 1 9 
Manual Training 9 9 
Letter Writing 7 1 8 
Physiolo 3 3 2 8 
Mathematics 6 1 7 
Grammar 1 Z 3 6 
Physics 3 3 
Mencius 2 2 
Piano 1 1 2 
Rhetoric 1 1 2 
Algebra 1 1 
Five Books 1 1 


Number in grade, 106; number reporting schedules, 106. 
6 


72 The Education of Girls in China 


In the Third Year Higher Primary, all of the girls, 42 in number, 
report weekly schedules: 42 report the study of history; 41 report 
mathematics (29 arithmetic, 1 algebra, 11 mathematics); 41, 
Bible, and English; 38, Chinese reading; 28, physical training; 
21, writing; 20, geography and singing. Elevenstudy Mandarin; 
12, hygiene; 12, hand-work; and 3, sanitation. Five periods are 
usually given to arithmetic, Chinese reading, and English; 3 
periods to hygiene and sanitation; 2 periods to geography and 
history. Thirteen recited Bible 3 periods per week, and 12, 5 
periods per week. 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—THIRD HIGHER PRIMARY 


Number of Recitation 1 Z 3 4 1516/7]/819 |10} Not Re- | Total 
Periods Per Week porting 
| 
History 13 4 6] 8 11 42 
Bible 13 6 |12 10 41 
English 4 125 2 10 41 
Chinese Reading 1 4 1 |20) 1 11 38 
Arithmetic 1 18 10 29 
Physical Training 20 2 6 28 
Writing 10 4 2 5 21 
Geography Ties 2 2 2 20 
Singing 13 2 5 20 
Music Saleh 2 16 
Classics 1 6| 1 15 
Composition 3 1 LSS | 2 15 
Hand-work 10 2 12 
Hygiene 12 12 
Essay 2 3 6 11 
Mandarin 11 sna! 
Mathematics 11 11 
Romanized 10 10 
Grammar 6 6 
Sanitation 2 1 3 
Biology 2 2 
Algebra 1 1 
Drawing 1 1 
Ethics 1 i 
General Science 1 1 
Moral Training 1 1 
Physical Geography 1 1 
Letter Writing 1 1 


Number of girls in grade, 42; number reporting schedules, 42. 


The studies most frequently reported by the pupils in the 
primary schools are arithmetic, English, Chinese reading and 
writing, Bible, geography, and history. These subjects are 
studied, in every grade, although history is not studied by a 
large number until the first year higher primary. Five recitation 
periods each week are usually given to arithmetic, English, 
Chinese reading and writing; 2 or 3 periods to Bible, history, and 
geography. Physical training is reported by a large number in 
the lower primary grades, but drops to a secondary place in the 


Subjects in the Curriculum 73 


last four years. The subjects of hygiene and sanitation, sewing, 
hand-work, and manual training are studied by relatively few 
pupils. 


The schedules of the girls in the four years of the middle school 
follow in order: 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—FIRST MIDDLE SCHOOL 


Number of Recitation 1 2 


Periods Per Week 


5 | 6] 7] 8/9 /10/11/12) Not Re- 


porting 


Total 


Bible 
Algebra 14 
History 

Singing 

English 

Physical Training 
Chinese Literature 
Composition 
Grammar 

Writing 

Drawing 

Essay 

Arithmetic 
Classics 

Reading 

Music 

French 1 
Biology 

Education 
Physiology 

Chinese History 
Chemistry 
Sanitation 

General Science 
House Management 
Physics 

Piano 

Sewing 

Botany 

Geography 
Calculus 

Cooking 

Domestic Science 
Astronomy 
Household Arts 
Mandarin 
Geometry 

General History 
Letter Writing 1 

Moral Training 

Biography 

English Composition 1 
Expression i! 
Mencius 


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13 61 
8} 2 15 56 

18 6 55 
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15 43 

20 3 9 40 


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Number in grade, 74; number reporting schedules, 74. 


74 The Education of Girls in China 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—SECOND MIDDLE SCHOOL 


Number of Recitation 1 2 3 4 |5|6]7]8]|9{|10) Not Re- | Total 
Periods Per Week porting 
English 1 slaeied LAO Set 3 18 92 
Bible GOL Oat Le eOTeL 17 83 
History LoteeaatecO 9 | 9} 2 10 75 
Physical Training 16 | 28 | 12 10 7 73 
Chinese Literature 2 SURO u eZ ha eo 2 9 57 
Algebra 5 | 13 7 | 9/10 12 56 
Composition S127 2 fi 6 50 
Singing 24 4 9 aed 8 49 
Geometry Tt 5 8 36 
Grammar ty 3 FENBISS al 2 33 
Physical Geography 1 3 6 16} 1 4 31 
Classics 1 4 9 3 13 30 
Writing 16 5 9 30 
Drawing 18 8 1 27 
Reading 1 13 6} 1 21 
Physiology 1 GuiwL2 1 20 
Essay Writing 13 2 4 19 
Education 11 6 1 18 
Chemistry 2 9 6 17 
Geology 8 1 6 15 
Music 4 1 Lo} 4 3 15 
House Management 12 2 14 
Mandarin 12 1 13 
Arithmetic 1 2 6 1 1 11 
History of Education 1 2 3 5 iki 
Botany 10 10 
General History 1 1 5 3 10 
Piano 1 9 10 
General Science 10 10 
Calculus 4 4 1 9 
American Literature 1 YA 8 
Domestic Science 8 8 
Astronomy 7 yf 
French 7 ii 
Psychology 7 7 
Teaching of Drawing 1 6 7 
Cooking 6 6 
Chinese History 2 2 4 
Sewing 1 2 3 
Geography 1 1 2 
Moral Training 2 2 
Sanitation 2 2, 
Normal Training 1 i 2 
Conversation 1 1 
Embroidery 1 1 
History of Literature 1 1 
Oratory 1 1 
Zodlogy 1 1 


Subjects in the Curriculum 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—THIRD MIDDLE SCHOOL 


Number of Recitation 
Periods Per Week 


Bible 

English 

Chinese Literature 
Essay 

Singing 
Geometry 
History 

Writing 

Classics 
Psychology 
Chemistry 
Composition 
Physical Training 
General Science 
Physiology 
Chinese Reading 
Piano 

House Management 
Mandarin 
Physics 

Ancient Literature 
Algebra 

General History 
Zodlogy 
Arithmetic 
English History 
Music | 
Sanitation 
Astronomy 
Grammar 
Hand-work 
History of Bible 
Moral Training 
Physical Geography 
Trigonometry 
Drawing 

Botany 
Geography 
Hygiene 
Letter Writing 
Sewing 

English Stories 
Debate 


Number of girls in grade, 38; number reporting schedules, 37. 


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7 


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Total 


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76 The Education of Girls in China 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—FOURTH MIDDLE SCHOOL 


Recitation 10132 3 4 5 | 6] 7] 8] 9/10}11}13)15|Not Re-| Total 
Periods Per Week porting 
English 1 Srl LOR Gol soln 10 Le 9 51 
Chinese Literature 2 2| 14) 18} 1 9 46 
Bible 2 10 | 15 7 8 42 
Chemistry 2 | 23 1 6 32 
History eee 3) 1 1 3 29 
Mandarin 7 2} 14 1 24 
Composition Slee 3 1 1 20 
Essay Writing 14 3 2 19 
Classics 3 5 I5¢ 5 18 
Grammar 3 13 1 17 
Methods of Teaching 5 2 9 16 
Geometry 3 7 2 12 
Music a 1 il 1 10 
Ethics 1 3 1 1 6 
Arithmetic 2 3 5 
Algebra 1 1 2 iL 5 
Hand-work 2 2, 4 
Normal Training 2 2 4 
Moral Training 1 2 3 
Astronomy 2 2 
Geography iy 1 2 
Drawing 2 2 
Foreign History 2 Zz 
Conversation 1 1 


Number of girls in grade, 58; number reporting schedules, 54. 


In the higher schools, algebra, geometry, and mathematics 
largely replace arithmetic; Chinese literature replaces Chinese 
reading. The sciences of biology, botany, chemistry, and 
physics replace geography; English and the Bible continue 
throughout. The tendency toward the newer subjects of sewing, 
household arts, household management, sanitation and hygiene 
may be traced in these schools as well as in the lower ones, and 
occasionally professional educational subjects are introduced in 
the last three years. 


Subjects in the Curriculum rid 


The schedules of the students in normal preparatory and normal 
schools are reported as follows: 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—NORMAL SCHOOL PREPARATORY 


Recitation 1 2 3 4 Total 


Periods Per Week 


5|6]7]8]9 {10} Not Re- 


porting 


Arithmetic 
Chinese Literature 
Geography 

usic 
Physical Training 
Drawing 
Writing 
Composition 
History 
Moral Training 
Sewing 
Chemistry 
Education 
Essay Writing 
Hand-work 
History of Literature 
Zoblogy 


mon 
— 
_ 
i 


for) 


~ 
ORF Oe DD Ore 
a 


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Number of girls in grade, 6; number reporting schedules, 6. 


SUBJECTS OF STUDY—FIRST NORMAL 


Recitation Periods Per Week 


12] 2]4|s5| 6 |7|s[o|r0 


Composition 
Arithmetic 

Chinese Reading 
Music 

Bible 

Geography 

History of Education 
Drawing 

History 

Classics 

Physical Training 
Psychology 

Methods of Study 
English 

Methods of Teaching 
General Science 
Hand-work 

Moral Training 
Algebra 

Botany 

Chinese Literature 
Physiology 

Sewing 

Writing 
Kindergarten 
English History 
Education 1 
Mother Play 

Practice Teaching Bible 
Practice Teaching Geography 


NORRe SRS eH 
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— 


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—_ or 


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Number of girls in grade, 17; number reporting schedules, 17. 


78 The Education of Girls in China 
SUBJECTS OF STUDY—SECOND NORMAL 


1 2 3 | 4/5] 6] 7| 8} 9}10/14/15}16/18/20} Not Re- 


porting 


Recitation Total 


Periods Per Week 


Chinese Reading 1 
Physical Training 7 
Arithmetic 
English 

History 
Education 
Chemistry 
Geography 
Composition 

Bible 

Music 

Practice Teaching 
Drawing 
Hand-work 

Moral Training 
Sewing 

Chinese Literature 
Writing 

Singing 

Mandarin 
Grammar 

Physics 
Physiology 
Psychology 1 
General Science 

Essay 

Botany 

Kindergarten 

Mencius 

Methods of Teaching 
Zoology 1 


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Number of girls in grade, 29; number reporting schedules, 28. 
SUBJECTS OF STUDY—THIRD NORMAL 


Not 


Reporting Total 


Recitation Periods Per Week | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 }5|6]7|] 9 0 


Chemistry 6 11 
Physical Training 


Sewing 


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WWHO BP wD ON @® ORI @ HhH 


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_— 

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fon] 


Chinese Reading 

Bible 

Composition 

Household Management 
Magazine 

Arithmetic 

Geography 

Letter Writing 
Hand-work 

Poetry 

Writing 

Chinese Literature 
Essay Writing 
Grammar 

Singing 

Zodlogy 

Classics 

Drawing 

Home-work 

Mandarin 2 
Moral Training 2 
Physics 2 


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Number of girls in grade, 11; number reporting schedules, 11. 


Subjects in the Curriculum 79 


In the normal schools the subjects of the lower schools are 
reviewed. To these education, history of education, kinder- 
garten, methods of study, methods of teaching, practice teaching, 
practice teaching of geography and Bible and psychology are 
added. The data from the Normal Schools are inadequate for a 
definite study. 


IMPORTANT SUBJECTS OF THE CURRICULUM—REPORTED BY 1119 


SCHOOLGIRLS 
N niet Periods 
umber of Recitation |1/ 2/3 | 4 | 5 |6|7]8|9| 1011/12/13] 14/15] Not Re-| Totals 
Periods Per Week ported 
Liberal Arts Subjects: 
Chinese Classics and 
Literature 29|124/154}100)296/34/44/16]15] 23 1} 2 297 1135 
English 14} 81] 78} 51/419]/50] 7] 8 37 Ss de Nin a liane ee 986 
Mathematics 20/164/183} 53/359/36/12 Al 1 1 190 1043 
Bible 34/142/219] 84/161] 8 5 1 236 890 
History 52/266/128! 84! 71] 5 1 148 761 
Geography 39/184}141) 34/108) 1 164 671 
Science 17|192} 93} 56} 28) 3 63 452 
Chinese Composition |71| 84] 9} 14] 31] 2 10 211 
Practical Arts Subjects: 
Sewing DalOolmla help 25 156 
Hand-work SS SOTO e 12 148 
Sanitation IO SF 11 34 89 
Domestic Science 51] 28 79 
Hygiene Ves |e dee emia 5 39 
Manual Training 5} 9 1 15 
Cooking 4 4 
Professional Educational 
Subjects: 
Psychology 222i) Sh 1 7 33 
Education 6} 9] 16 31 
(14] 15] 16) 18} 20) 
Practice Teaching Glee epee een 1 BAL AML kn Mea 22 
History of Education TI ZI oie 11 
Methods of Teaching Lime 1 7 
Methods of Study AN vay], oak 7 
Kindergarten Training 3 1 4 


When the courses of study are considered as a unit, it becomes 
apparent that out of the 1119 girls reporting, there are 1135,! 
reports on Chinese reading, classics and literature; 986, or 88.1 
per cent, report English and grammar; 890, or 86.7 per cent, 
Bible; 1042, or 93.2 per cent, mathematics; 761, or 68 per cent, 
history; 671, or 59.9 per cent, geography; 452, or 40.3 per cent, 
science; 302, or 26.9 per cent, domestic science in its various 
phases; 128, or 11.4 per cent, hygiene and sanitation; and 115, or 
10.2 per cent, subjects in normal training. 


1Two hundred and twenty-six report Chinese classics, 521 report Chinese 
reading, and 388 report Chinese literature. 


80 The Education of Girls in China 


Mathematics, Chinese, English, Bible, history, and science 
are thus the predominating subjects. Unquestionably each one 
of these supplies in some degree a demand of society. Arith- 
metic, Chinese—the mother tongue of the pupils—religion, 
science, and history, are all integral parts of the life experience 
of every Chinese girl. English is an important medium in all 
higher education to-day. Moreover, among the business and 
professional classes it is desired for intercourse with powerful 
foreigners who live in every important city. 


LIBERAL ARTS SUBJECTS 
Chinese Classics and 

‘SNE OS LA EIS Le ET IED Tt ya ture L135 Pupils 
eS Mathematice-10435 Pupils 
EE ee Knglish-986 Pupile 
(META ees Bible-890 Pupils 
Eres History-761 Pupils 
Se es COOgraphy-671 Pupils 
Qeeescience-452 Pupils 
WE Chinese Composition-211 Pupils 


PRACTICAL ARTS SUBJECTS 


(REE Sewing-156 Pupils 
Malm Handwork-145 pupils 
Wl Sanitation-89 Pupils 
Q@mmDomestic Science-79 Pupils 
M@pygiene-39 Pupils 

@Manual Training-15 Pupile 

§ Cooking-4 Pupils 


PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL SUBJECTS 


WPsychology-35 Pupils 

pa kEducation-31 Pupils 

W Practice Teaching-22 Pupils 
GHistory of Education-1l Pupils 
UMethods of Teaching-7 Pupils 
IMethods of Study-7 Pupils 

1 Kindergarten Training-4 Pupils 


Fic. 7. ImporTANT SUBJECTS OF THE CURRICULUM. 


In an analysis of the curriculum, however, it is evident that the 
schedule, especially in the lower grades, is very heavily loaded. 
The study of the Chinese language—character reading, writing 
and composition—is extremely difficult in spite of the fact that it 
is the mother tongue of the pupils. Ability to read the literature 
which is considered essential for scholars, or even ability to read 
the newspapers and magazines, is rarely acquired without years 
of intensive work. To this subject are added, even in the lower 
primary school, history, science, mathematics and foreign lan- 
guage. In the mission schools Bible completes the schedule. 
The mitigating features of the situation are that the girls in 


Subjects in the Curriculum 81 


school at the present time are from four to six years older than 
the normal ages in the lower grades, and that they are probably a 
highly selected group intellectually as well as socially. It is to be 
expected, however, that the work will be too severe for the 
younger group of perhaps average intelligence which will come 
into the schools in increasing numbers. To relieve this over- 
loading, the requirements in Chinese may be modified,! parts of 
arithmetic and higher mathematics omitted, since the theory of 
formal discipline can no longer justify their continuance as a 
subject for study in the lower grades, large portions of Western 
history supplanted by history of the nations of the Far East, and 
science applied to daily experience. To evaluate every portion 
of every subject in the curriculum; to discard the useless and to 
keep only that part which is applicable to the lives of the Chinese 
schoolgirls; to experiment, to test the results of every change, and 
to adopt only the best,—is an imperative need of education for 
girls in China to-day. 

The reduction of the present course of study is made more 
necessary to provide time for the important subjects, now neg- 
lected, which should be emphasized in the curriculum. Since 
only 36.4 per cent of the girls are studying subjects which relate 
directly either to the home or to community life,? since the 
majority of the girls live away from home most of the years they 
attend school thus having little opportunity to obtain training in 
household science, and since each of the girls will become a part of 
some social group after completing the school course, there is 
evident need for a closer relation of the curriculum to immediate 
home and community life. With the present system, malad- 
justments in family and village are frequent. Mothers-in-law 
often dread the new order of courtship by which a son brings into 
the home a Western trained daughter-in-law who cannot cook 
and despises housework. Many schoolgirls dread marriage as a 
‘‘prison-house, ’’ and welcome any plan which will free them from 
the responsibility and meaningless drudgery of housekeeping. 
In one village the daughter so evidently disapproved her mother’s 


1 Chinese educators have already given much attention to this subject, and 
have introduced readers containing selections from literature and the classics. 
Many are also working upon the problem of the character. 

2 Only 26.3 per cent are studying domestic science, 10.8 per cent, hygiene and 
sanitation, and none, sociology or civics. 


82 The Education of Girls in China 


way of doing things that the mother broke up the home, sent all 
of the children to boarding school, and went herself to a women’s 
training school. The benefits derived from a school curriculum 
which separates pupils from life and gives neither appreciation of 
nor training in the fundamental processes of home keeping may 
be definite and measurable, but they are accompanied by great 
and unnecessary evils. 

Furthermore, such a curriculum is directly opposed to the trend 
of modern educational theory and practice. The worth of any 
curriculum to-day is judged, not by precision and uniformity of 
subject matter, but by its contribution to the life and growth of 
each child as an individual in society. This demands that 
‘‘nature and society live in the schoolroom”’ and that the ‘‘forms 
and tools of learning’ be ‘‘subordinated to the substance of 
experience.’’! This may be obtained by making the home and 
the community vital factors in the experience of the pupil during 
the years spent at school. The introduction of courses in house- 
hold subjects with projects which bring the girls into close contact 
with their homes, and courses in sociology, based on experimental 
studies of Chinese villages, is both possible and necessary in the 
socialization of the curriculum. 

Courses are also needed to prepare women to render definite 
service under the changing condition of Chinese society. The 
Chinese schoolgirls have signified their purposes to become physi- 
clans, nurses, and teachers. The rise of the normal schools, 
and the introduction of professional subjects in the secondary 
schools, show that the demand for preparation for teaching as a 
vocation is becoming already insistent. It will not be long be- 
fore the need for training in other vocations will be equally im- 
perative. It is true that complete preparation for vocations and 
professions cannot be accomplished in secondary schools. On 
the other hand, however, courses that will help in the first few 
years of teaching, community aids in sanitation, hygiene, nursing, 
and domestic economy are possible in every higher primary and 
middle school program. An essential part of the secondary 
school curriculum is to give each girl a broad foundation of 
knowledge and thought. But it is equally important that it en- 


1 Dewey, School and Society, p. 56. 


Subjects in the Curriculum 83 


able her to prepare for some phase of effective social helpfulness 
whenever she is compelled to leave school. 

/ The fundamental reorganization of the curricula to provide 
more reasonable programs, closer relation to community and home 
life, and more definite preparation for service, in order that the 
girls in the schools may receive an adequate opportunity for 
study, is an immediate task for educators in China. 


CHAPTER V 
CONCLUSION 


SUMMARY OF RESULTS 


The education of girls in China has been a definite, compar- 
atively conscious process for many centuries. Among the upper 
classes the more fortunate women have been accomplished, and 
have learned to read and to write. Some have become artists 
and great scholars. But the majority of women, from ancient 
times down to the present day, have known little of the world 
outside of the inner courts of their own homes. 

For over nine hundred and ninety out of every thousand girls 
in China to-day, education means obedience to older members of 
the family and self-training to compliance in all requests. For 
many of these it means also learning to spin linen from flax and 
silk from cocoons, to weave cotton, to make garments for every 
member of the family: garments of single thickness for summer, 
and of double thickness padded with cotton for winter; to supply 
hats for the men and shoes for all, to cook food with a stubble fire, 
to manage a family of six on an income below a living wage. 
There is little time, little thought, and no opportunity for learning 
to read. 

The first school for girls which introduced Western subjects was 
started by a missionary in 1848. Very gradually the idea of 
schools for girls permeated the nation. In 1876, the increase of 
numbers attending began to become apparent. In 1898 the 
first school under Chinese management was opened as a private 
institution. In 1907 the government established a system of 
schools for the education of girls. But since the first revolution 
in 1911, there has been a phenomenal rise in the number of girls 
attending mission, private and government schools, and institu- 
tions are unable to accommodate those who apply for admission. 
In spite of this fact, however, probably fewer than ten in one 
thousand girls are attending school. It is estimated that eight 
out of the ten are in the first four years of the course. Approxi- 
mately seven girls out of ten thousand are attending the higher 


84 


Conclusion 85 


primary school, and three in ten thousand are pursuing a course 
in the middle school. These girls are in day and boarding in- 
stitutions situated for the most part in great cities along trade 
routes. 

From the study of one thousand one hundred and seventy-six 
of the pupils of the boarding schools it may be concluded that the 
schoolgirls of China to-day are a very highly selected class. Their 
fathers are usually professional and business men whose incomes 
are between $500 and $600 Mexican per year. Over one half of 
the girls live in dormitories, and thus are separated from their 
homes, except for brief visits, during their entire course in higher 
primary, middle and normal schools. In the investigation of the 
ambitions of this group it was found that almost one third desire 
to teach. 

The majority of the girls are from ten to eighteen years of 
age. They enter school from four to six years older than the 
legal entrance age. In the first year of the lower primary school, 
and in every year thereafter, a large proportion are over-age. 
While in school, the girls study Chinese literature, composition 
and writing; mathematics, and English, history, geography, and 
science and in mission schools, Bible. Usually five recitation 
periods each week are given to the five subjects, four periods to 
history, and three periods to the last three subjects. A few girls 
report one or two recitations each week in sewing, household arts, 
hygiene and sanitation. In the middle school some give time to 
professional educational subjects. 


RECOMMENDATIONS 


In view of the vast number of girls still unreached by the 
schools, a definite program for securing universal school attend- 
ance needs to be worked out by the authorities in government, 
private and mission educational systems. If feasible, these three 
agencies should follow one central plan adopted by all, after a 
careful, extensive survey of the situation in each province. 
Such a provincial survey and plan would include a census of the 
population of children of school age and available schools with the 
present school attendance, and would definitely endeavor to reach 
large, now untouched geographical areas. 

Where union provincial plans are impossible, surveys of local 
cities and villages, showing the distribution of population, occupa- 


86 The Education of Girls in China 


tion of citizens, wealth, present school attendance, and classes 
from which students come, carried on by voluntary associations 
of resident educators, may be accomplished in many educational 
centers. Some of the results which might be expected from such 
a survey are: a definite plan for providing educational facilities 
for now neglected districts, a basis for estimating a feasible 
scheme for financing the schools, and systematic propaganda 
among all social classes which will enlist their enthusiastic support 
and secure a consciousness of the possibility of and desire for the 
education of every child. That there is increasing interest in the 
problem of education is evident from the sudden rise of the 
number of pupils in school. This interest should be utilized in 
furthering the rapid extension of schools in the democracy of the 
Kast. 

It is evident from the investigation of this study that special 
attention must be given to attendance problems in farmer, 
artisan and laborer classes. It is necessary that some arrange- 
ment be made for the support of girls in school in order that the 
daughters of these great untouched, poverty-burdened classes be 
given opportunity for education. Free schools are not yet 
provided, for there is no national system of taxation for educa- 
tion,! and the sources of revenue are entirely inadequate to finance 
the needed rapid increase in the number of schools. At the same 
time, the extreme poverty of great masses of people will doubtless 
prevent them from supporting either the schools or the children 
while at school. This problem of finance is one of the greatest 
which faces educators in China to-day, and will continue until 
the economic status of the people be raised by the wide use of 
natural resources, and until the public demand and furnish 
education for all children. 

There is also definite need that educational institutions find 
some way by which the pupils during their years of education 
may be brought into close contact with both home and society. 
Wherever possible, the pupils attending school should live at home 
or with relatives. Home projects in household work, in sanita- 
tion, in entertainment through synopses of history, geography or 
literature lessons, and home reading of the newspapers, should be 
definitely planned and executed. Parents and friends may be 


1 Kuo, P. W., Chinese Education System, pp. 133, 147. 


Conclusion 87 


invited often to the schools and made the guests of groups, classes 
or the whole school. For girls who must live at the school, a 
‘“‘model house”’ in which home problems may be carried on should 
be an essential of institutional equipment. For older pupils, and 
those in the higher primary or middle grades, projects which will 
involve study in neighboring villages will give perspective to stu- 
dents. By these, and many other methods and by constantly 
growing experimentation the girls may be kept vital factors in 
society while at school. 

Moreover, there is need for courses which give definite prepara- 
tion for some vocation. The changing social order already de- 
mands new types of education for the Chinese girl. Schools are 
opened in rapidly increasing numbers. For every school a teacher 
is needed, and these teachers must be trained. To the end that 
they may not drop into a dull routine, bounded by tradition and 
limited by the class-room walls, the girls who have expressed a 
desire to enter this profession should study the principles of 
education, and have opportunity for supervised practice before 
leaving school. This will at least awaken in them a professional 
consciousness, and make growth in service a probability. In 
many communities there is also need for the social service or 
evangelistic worker. Schools may introduce ‘courses in religion 
and civic betterment that will definitely fit girls for this work in 
villages and cities. Business is beginning to make a place for 
women, and business courses may supply the need of some girls. 
Probably special schools for advanced study in social service, 
commerce, and industry will be developed later, as they have been 
for education. Until vocational schools are within the reach of 
every girl, courses which will train girls for the work they must do 
are a necessity, that girls who leave school before they reach the 
higher professional schools will be fitted to render some immediate 
contribution to their communities. 

In order that time may not be wasted, a universal entrance 
age at six or seven years should be secured through propaganda 
and law enforcement. A close articulation of the systems of 
government, private and mission schoals to provide efficient 
transfer and the adjustment of each year schedule of study to the 
actual ability of the pupils. This will involve an attendance 
department (perhaps working under a union committee), which 


will seek to stimulate public opinion on school attendance, which 
‘ 


88 The Education of Girls in China 


will investigate absences and visit the homes of non-attending 
children of school age. It will involve a comparison and evolu- 
tion of the various courses of study throughout each city, and offi- 
cial recognition of every school. It will necessitate the careful 
study of the progress! of every pupil and class, and the constant 
change of curriculum requirements. There will be need for ex- 
tremely flexible grade divisions, frequent promotions, wide indi- 
vidual choice of subject matter with special rooms for those who 
are either especially gifted or backward. 

Instead of the overloaded and artificial curriculum of Chinese 
reading and writing—the mastery of which is in itself a gigantic 
task—plus the Western subjects of arithmetic, foreign language, 
Bible, history, geography and science, a curriculum of studies 
fitted to the needs of the Chinese girl is imperative. Let the 
traditional divisions of the curriculum be questioned, and let only 
those things be taught which the pupil, the community, or the 
nation demand for physical and spiritual well-being and growth. 
If the schoolgirl must read books, magazines and newspapers, 
teach her the characters used in their vocabularies. If for effi- 
ciency in the school or home, in cooking or household management, 
she should understand and apply the laws of heat, light or food 
changes, direct her to her environment for the problems which she 
will meet daily in the process of living. She would keep herself in 
good health: discuss with her its laws, and make the practice of 
these laws an essential to successful completion of the course. 
If she has an opportunity to assist in cleaning up a house or a 
village, help her to understand and execute the principles of 
sanitation. If she desires to speak with foreign people, or to read 
a foreign literature, teach her those words and phrases which she 
will need. |Whenshe becomes conscious of interests of her village 
as a part of the world interests, and would study places and 
customs and trade, lead her into the problems of geography. 
When knowledge of the development of her own and other nations 
will add to the richness of her experience and the comprehension of 
present-day movements, direct her into the study of history. 


1 The real progress of pupils in subjects has been measured in America, and 
some places of China, by the standard tests. Only a very few—perhaps those 
in arithmetic, drawing and sewing, are fitted for translation, but tests in various 
subjects if such could be made would be very valuable in providing objective 
measures of achievement. 


Conclusion 89 


When she seeks the meanings of world tendencies, of individual 
life and the relation of belief and action discuss with her the 
interpretations and questions of religion and philosophy Give 
time for appreciation of sunset and river, melody and beauty. 
In all of these essentials of living it is the privilege of the school 
tohelp. But the worth of the school curriculum is not determined 
by its precision or completeness of outline, but by its actual con- 
tribution to the growth of the child who studies. Such a course 
of study prepares for continual as well as for ultimate service. 
It calls for a fundamental reorganization of the present curri- 
culum based upon experimental investigation of the present needs 
of the community, and the life needs of the Chinese schoolgirl. 

The womanhood of China to-day faces a new world. Soon, 
perhaps in this generation, the age-old duty of clothing her family 
will be entirely taken away from her, the burdens of the house- 
keeping lightened by modern inventions and the standards of 
living raised because of increased incomes. Citizenship, per- 
haps enfranchised citizenship, in a republic will bring responsi- 
bilities to women as individuals and will push the boundaries of 
their thought life far beyond the walls of their villages. Bridges, 
electric power plants, mines and railroads will shatter belief in 
superstitions and make way for faith. Ethical relationships, 
and righteous conduct, emphasized for millenniums but limited to 
the family, may be broadened to those altruistic attitudes which 
link ambition for self improvement with an unselfish purpose for. 
service. 

To those who have undertaken the task of guiding education 
for women in this generation belongs the task of experiment, 
measurement and adjustment which will give the new woman, 
through contact with life situations, a vision of her possibilities. 
Thus may the woman of new China be prepared in knowledge, 
skill, and spirit to serve her home, her community, her nation and 
the world. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ENGLISH 


Bashford, J. W. China, an Interpretation. 

Beach, H. P. and St. John, B. World Atlas of Christian Missions. (1910.) 
Bland, J. O. P. and Backhouse, E. W.’ China Under the Empress Dowager. 
_ Boggs, L. Pearl. Chinese Womanhood. 

Burton, Margaret S. The Education of Women in China. 

Burton, Margaret S. Notable Women of Modern China. 

China Mission Handbook, The, 1896. 

China Mission Year Books, The, 1910-1917. 

China Year Books, The, 1912-1916. 

Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. 

Dean, W. The China Mission. 

Dewey, John. _ School and Society. 

Encyclopedia of Education. 

Faber, E. Famous Women of China. 

Gamewell, Mary Ninde. The Gateway to China. 

Giles, H. A. A History of Chinese Literature. 

Giles, L. Alphabetical Index to the Chinese Encyclopedia. 

Goodsell, Willystine. The Family. 

Headland, I. T. Court Life in China. 

Headland, I. T. Home Life in China. 

Kiang, S. C. Women and Education in China. (Unpublished.) 
King, F. H. Farmers of Forty Centuries. 

King, H. E. Educational System of China as Recently Reconstructed. 
Kuo, P. W. The Chinese System of Public Education. 


Kuo, P. W. The Training of Teachers in China. (Thesis, Teachers College, 


1912.) 
Little, Mrs. A. In the Land of the Blue Gown. 
Pott, F. L. H. <A Sketch of Chinese History. 


Records of the General Conference of the Protestant’ Missionaries of China, 1877. 


Reinsch, P.S. Intellectual and Political Currents in the Far East. 


Reinsch, P. S. New Education in China. (Reprint from Atlantic Monthly, 


April, 1909.) 
Reports of: 
American Baptist Missionary Union, 1856-1909. 
American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society, 1909-1917. 
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1833-1915. 


Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1823-1915. 


Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, 1833-1917. 


Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal 


Church of the United States of America, 1831-1917. 
90 


Bibliography 91 


North China Woman’s Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
1917. 

School Committee of Brighton, Mass., 1849-50. 

Wesleyan Society. . 

~ Woman’s American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society, 1874-1917. 
~ Woman’s Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 

1873-1917. 

Worlds Missionary Conference, 1910, Vol. III. Christian Education. 

Ross, E. A. The Changing Chinese. 


‘ Saxelby, E. Mary. Woman’s Work in Tientsin. (Pamphlet.) 


Smith, A. H. Village Life in China. 

Strayer, G. D. Some Problems in City School Administration. 
Streit, P.C. Atlas Hierarchicus. 

Triennial Reports of the China Educational Association. (1899-1902.) 
Williams, 8. W. History of China. 

Williams, 8S. W. Middle Kingdom. 


TRANSLATIONS 


Confucious. Lun Yu (Analects). Translated by J. Legge. 

I King (Book of Changes). Translated by J. Legge. 

Jen Hsiao. Nei Hsun (Teaching of the Inner Courts). Translated by I. T. 
Headland. (Unpublished.) 

Li Ki (Book of Rites). Translated by J. Legge. 

Lu Chow. Nw Heo (Teaching for Women). Translated in The Chinese 
Repository, Vol. [X. 

Meng Tze (Mencius). Translated by J. Legge. 

San Tze King (Three Character Classic). Translated in The Chinese Repository, 
Vol. IV. ; 

She King (Book of Odes). Translated by J. Legge. 


» Sung Jo Chao. Nt Lun Yu (Analects for Women). Translated by I. T. 


Headland. (Unpublished.) 
Tsao, Lady. Nz Chieh (Instruction for Women). Translated by I. T. Head- 
land. (Unpublished.) 
~ Wang Chieh Fu. Nz Fan Chieh Lu (Short Records of Exemplary Women). 
Translated by I. T. Headland. (Unpublished.) 


CHINESE 


Chiao Yu Pu Wen Tu Liao Piang (Educational Documents). 

Chiao Yu Pu Wen Tu Lei Pien (Educational Documents). 

Chiao Yu Pu Ching Chun Kao Teng Hsiao Hsueh Hsiao Ling (Orders Issued 
by the Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher Primary 
Schools). 

Chiao Yu Pu Ching Chun Haiu Cheng Shih Fan Hsueh Hsiao Kwei Chu (Orders 
Issued by the Board of Education on the Regulations for Normal 
Schools). 

Chung Hsueh Hsiao Ling (Regulations for Middle Schools). 


92 The Education of Girls in China 


Chung Hwa Min Kwoa Ti { 3,} Tze Chiao Yu Tung Chi Tu Piao (Annual 
Statistical Reports of the Board of Education). 1912-13. 

Ku Chin Tu Shu Chi Cheng (The Encyclopedia). 

Kwoa Min Hsueh Hsiao Ling (Regulations for Citizens Schools). 

Lu Hsiang. Lieh Nui Chwan (Biographies of Eminent Women). 


PERIODICALS 


ENGLISH 
Catholic Missions. 
The Chinese Recorder. 
The Chinese Repository. 
The Chinese Students’ Monthly. 
The Educational Review. 
The Spirit of Missions. 
Women’s Missionary Friend (formerly Heathen Women’s Friend). 
Woman’s Work in the Far East. 
Woman’s Work for Women. 


GERMAN 
Zeitschaft fiir Missions-Wissenschaft. 
CHINESE 


The Chinese Weekly. 
The Chinese Educational Review. 


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